L^y 


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THE 


PHILOSOPHY  OF  EDUCATION 


PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHIN&. 


IN  FIVE  PARTS. 


PART      I.    ON  METHOD  AS  APPLIED  TO  EDUCATION. 

PART     II.    ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  INTELLECTUAL  AND  MORAL  FACULTIES. 

PART    IIL    ON  THE  COMPARATIVE  ADVANTAGES  OF  DIFFERENT   METHODS    AND 

SYSTEMS  OF  INSTRUCTION.! 
PART    IV.    ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  DIFFERENT  SYSTEMS  AND  METHODS  TO  THE 

VARIOUS  BRANCHES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION. 
PART     V.    ON  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION  AND  DISCIPLINE. 


By  T.   TATE,   F.  R.  A.  S. 

With  an  Introduction  by  Col.  Francis  W.  Parker. 

SECOND  AMERICAN  EDITION,  FROM  ENTIRELY  NEW  PLATES. 


^'^  OF  THK  "^^ 

IJHri7ERSIT 


SYRACUSE,  N.  Y. ; 

W.  BARDEEN,    PUBLISHER. 

1885. 


^^. 


-^o'^ 


NOTE  TO  THE  FIRST  AMERICAN  EDITION. 

No  English  book  on  education  has  been  oftener  called  for  than  this 
during  the  past  Ave  years;  but  a;s  the  original  edition  was  exhausted  and 
the  publishers  did  not  replace  it,  copies  have  been  wholly  unattainable. 
Accordingly,  I  have  re-printed  it  at  Col.  Parker's  desire  and  from  a  copy 
lent  me  by  him,  following  the  English  edition  exactly,  even  to  the  paging, 
but  reducing  the  price  to  $1.50  per  copy.  It  is  not,  however,  stereotyped 
and  only  one  thousand  copies  have  been  printed. 


NOTE  TO  THE  SECOND  AMERICAN  EDITION. 

The  publisher  confesses  that  he  lacked  faith  when  Col.  Parker  asked 
him  to  reprint  a  book  like  this  for  American  teachers,  and  the  original 
edition  of  a  thousand  copies  was  published  more  as  a  favor  to  Col.  Parker 
than  in  the  hope  that  it  would  ever  be  sold. 

But  a  general  awakening  to  the  necessity  of  pedagogical  reading,  and 
especially  the  establishment  of  Teachers'  lieading  Circles  all  over  the 
country,  with  lists  of  books  to  be  read  by  every  member  has  aroused  an 
unprecedented  call  for  standard  works  on  teaching.  In  nearly  every  such 
list  this  work  has  been  one  of  the  lirst  selected,— as,  for  instance,  in  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Minnesota,  Illinois,  and  other  States.  To  meet  this 
demand  the  present  edition  has  been  prepared.  By  the  use  of  more 
open  type  the  number  of  pages  is  increased  from  830  to  400,  and  the  book 
can  now  be  supplied  in  any  quant itics  ordered. 


Copyright,  1884,  1885,  by  C.  W.  Bardken. 


,>\  O?   THE 


I7EBSIT 
PREFACE  TO  THE  AJlSlCAN  EDITION. 


I  venture  to  present  an  extract  from  the  Quincy 
Report  of  1878  and  '79.  "The  principles  of  instruction 
that  I  am  trying  to  make  the  foundation  of  all  the 
teaching  in  Quincy  were  long  since  discovered  and 
established.  With  a  few  exceptions  in  minor  points, 
all  the  eminent  w^riters  upon  philosophical  teaching, 
from  Bacon  to  Spencer,  have  explained  these  principles 
and  urged  their  application  in  practice.  There  has  been 
no  famous  teacher  for  the  last  two  hundred  years  who 
does  not  owe  his  fame  to  the  application  of  them. 
*  *  *  *  It  may  be  asked,  'If  these  principles  are 
so  simple,  and  supported  by  such  high  authority,  why 
are  they  not  well  known  to  the  thousands  of  intelligent 
teachers  in  this  state?'  I  will  answer  indirectly  by 
stating  a  fact.  Until  within  a  short  time  the  best 
standard  works  upon  education  were  not  to  be  found 
on  the  richly  loaded  shelves  of  the  book-dealer  in  our 
American  Athens." 

Happily  a  change  has  taken  place  in  the  educational 
world  within  the  last  few  years. 

"  I  sell  twenty-five  books  on  education  now  to  one  I 
sold  five  years  ago,"  is  the  report  of  one  of  the  most 
prominent  booksellers  in  Boston. 


IV  PREFACE    TO    THE    AMERICAN    EDITION. 

All  the  English  pedagogical  works  taken  together 
would  make  but  a  comparatively  small  library,  and  of 
this  small  number  very  few  indeed  pretend  to  discuss  at 
any  length  the  fundamental  principles  of  teaching. 

Methods  and  details  of  methods  form  the  stock  in 
trade  of  most  pedagogical  writers.  These  books  do 
very  little  except  to  perpetuate  a  useless  unending  strife 
over  methods  that  differ  because  the  motives  that 
determine  them  differ.  The  only  books  that  radically 
help  are  those  which  discuss  profoundly  the  principles 
and  ideals  of  education. 

When  1  was  a  young  teacher  with  some  aspirations 
for  a  situation  in  Boston,  that  distinguished  educator, 
J.  D.  Philbrick,  then  Superintendent  of  the  Boston 
Schools,  told  me  that  there  was  a  Science  of  Education 
founded  upon  mental  laws,  and  that  the  way  to  true 
success  in  teaching  could  only  be  found  by  a  close  study 
of  that  science. 

I  took  his  excellent  advice,  obtained  a  list  of  the  best 
works  on  pedagogics  and  sent  to  England  for  them,  as 
they  could  not  be  bought  in  this  country. 

At  the  head  of  the  list  stood  Tate's  Philosophy  of 
Education.  In  re-reading  the  book  I  recognize  the  fact 
that  it  has  given  me  more  substantial  aid  in  teaching 
than  any  other  English  work  1  ever  studied.  It  may  be 
that  there  are  better  books,  but  just  at  that  time  it  was 
the  book  for  me. 


PREFACE    TO    THE    AMERICAN    EDITION.  V 

Its  author  was  a  firm,  undaunted  believer  in  the  Kew 
Education.  No  one  can  tell  what  the  so-called  New 
Education  really  is,  from  the  very  fact  that  many  if  not 
most  of  its  principles  and  resulting  methods  have  yet 
to  be  discovered.  We  stand  on  the  border-land  of  dis- 
covery in  education. 

If  it  is  impossible  to  present  any  adequate  idea  of 
the  New  Education,  the  position  of  its  disciples  may  be 
easily  defined.  They  lelieve  that  there  is  an  immense  ma/rgin 
between  the  known  and  the  unknown  in  education.  The  un- 
believers, on  the  other  hand,  hold  that,  with  some  possi- 
ble exceptions,  the  march  of  progress  in  education  has 
closed  with  them. 

The  followers  of  the  New  Education  count  in  their 
ranks  every  great  thinker  and  writer  upon  education 
from  Socrates  to  Horace  Mann,  "who  point  to  higher 
worlds  and  lead  the  way."  Thought  that  penetrates 
hidden  forces  in  nature  and  expresses  itself  in  wood, 
iron  and  steel,  has  within  eighty  years  revolutionized 
the  civilized  world;  is  it  then  too  much  to  hope 
that  when  the  same  mental  energy  is  turned  upon  the 
evolution  of  thought  and  thought  power,  still  more 
wonderful  changes  will  be  made  ? 

The  New  Education  simply  means  the  thinking, 
thoughtful  teacher  who  has  an  ideal  founded  upon  the 
vast  possibilities   of  human  development,  an  ideal  far 


VI  PREFACE   TO   THE    AMERICAN    EDITION. 

beyond  himself,  and  outside  tlie  reach  of  methods  he 
now  uses. 

The  stationary  followers  of  the  Old  Education  liave 
an  ideal  they  can  easily  reach,  and,  having  done  so,  the 
smile  of  perfect  pedantic  satisfaction  freezes  up  on 
their  faces,  a  striking  manifestation  of  the  utter  com- 
placency to  be  found  in  limited  ideals. 

Very  few  teachers  can  read  this  book  without  receiv- 
ing fresh  inspiration  for  the  highest  work  ever  given  by 
the  Creator  of  the  human  soul  to  his  creatures;  the 
work  of  guiding  the  child's  being  towards  a  realization 
of  the  possibilities  of  growth  into  goodness  and  power. 

Francis  W.  Parkek. 

Cook  County  Normal  School,  Feb.  13,  1884. 


PREFACE 


This  work  is  the  result  of  the  labour  and  reflection  of 
many  years;  it,  in  fact,  embodies  the  experience  of  my 
life  as  a  practical  educator.  It  contains  an  exposition 
of  all  the  leading  principles  upon  which  my  other  works 
on  education  have  been  written;  and  in  order  to  under- 
stand, fully,  the  drift  and  purpose  of  the  one,  the 
teacher  must  study  the  expositions  and  principles  of  the 
other.  Wherever  I  have  adopted  the  ideas  of  others, 
I  have  always,  to  the  best  of  my  recollection,  made  a 
due  acknowledgement  of  the  obligation. 

I  am  not  acquainted  with  any  work  which  really 
treats  of  the  i3hilosophy  of  education  in  connection 
with  the  practice  of  it.  Our  books  on  education  are 
either  too  purely  speculative,  or  too  exclusively  em- 
pirical, and,  so  called,  practical. 

My  most  earnest  desire  is,  that  this  work  may  be  the 
means  of  directing  the  attention  of  the  practical  edu- 
cator to  the  philosophy  of  education,  and  to  the 
development  of  those  systems  and  methods  which  are 
best  calculated  to  establish  in  our  schools  a  thoroughly 
sound  and  enlightened  education. 

T.  TATE. 


Otkr  Stanflarfl  Worh  on  TeacMng. 

Sent  post-paid  on  receipt  of  the  price  hy  the  same  publisher. 


ENGLISH. 

Payne's  "  Lectures  on  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education." 

Paper,  50  cts.     Cloth $1.00 

Fitch's  "  Lectures  on  Education." 1.25 

Smaller  edition 1. 00 

Herbert  Spencer's  "Education,    Intellectual,   Moral   and 

Physical."    Paper,  50  cts.     Cloth 1.25 


AMERICAN. 

De  Graff's  "  School  Room  Guide.".. 1.50 

Page's  "Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching."    New  edition, 

revised 1.25 

Hoose's  "  On  the  Province  of  Methods  of  Teaching." 1.00 

Payne's  •*  Short  History  of  Education." 50 

Col.  Parker's  "  Notes  and  Talks  on  Teaching. " 1 .  00 

Miss  Partridge's  "  Quincy  Methods." 1.50 


ANALYSIS  OF  CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introduction  -  -  .  .       .  .  i 

PART  I.— ON  METHODS   AS   APPLIED  TO  EDUCA- 
TION. 

CHAPTER  I. 
Methods  and  Systems  op  Instruction. — Definition  of 

Terms,  &c.  - 10 

Different  Methods  and  Systems  of  Education  at  present 
employed  in  Elementary  Schools. 

CHAPTER  II. 
Importance  of  Method  -  -  -  -  16 

Method  in  Education, — in  Art, — in  Science, — in  Poetry, 
—in  Oratory, — in  Nature.     A  distinguished  Teacher 
must  have  a  Method. 
A  Glance  at  the  History  op  Method  -  -  21 

Socrates,  —  Euclid,  —  Bacon,  — Newton, —  Archimedes. 
Primary  Education, — Locke,    Rousseau, — Pestalozzi, 
— Lancaster, — Bell, — Government  scheme  of  Educa- 
tion. 
Present  Condition  and  Future  Progress  op  Educa- 
tion -------  27 

Necessity  of  further  Progress.     Educators  divided  into 
two  Classes.     The  Baconian  Philosophy  considered  in 
relation  to  the  Progress  of  Modern  Education. 
Philosophy  of  Method  ...  -  38 

Education  based  on  an  Induction  of  Facts.  The  Prin- 
ciples of  Method  considered  subjectively  as  well  as 
objectively.  Difficulties  peculiar  to  the  Inquiry.  Im- 
portance of  Definitions.     Collection  of  Facts.    To  dis- 


CONTENTS. 

tinguish  between  Facts  and  Opinions.  Comparison 
and  ClassiiScation  of  Facts.  Relation  of  Cause  and 
Effect.  General  Principles.  Evils  of  implicit  Confi- 
dence in  Method.  Experiments  required  to  test  Sys- 
tems; and  "Methods.  To  estimate  the  Results  of  Method. 


CHAPTER  III. 

To  ASCERTAIN  THE  NATURE  OP  THE  BeING  TO  BE  EDUCATED. 

General  Facts  relating  to  the  Development  of  the 
Intellectual  Faculties  .  -  -  -  46 

Primitive  Intelligence  as  shown  in  Perception  and 
Intuition,  considered  as  the  Basis  op  Development  op 
the  Intellectual  Faculties  -  -  •  68 

Sensation,  Reflection,  and  Intuition.  The  infant  Soul  con- 
tains implicitly  all  the  Faculties  of  the  developed  In- 
telligence. 
Classipication  of  the  Faculties  op  the  Mind  -  74 

Four  distinct  Stages  of  Development.  Classification  of 
the  Faculties  of  the  Mind  as  a  whole.  Classification 
of  the  Intellectual  Faculties.  Explanatory  Remarks. 
—  First  Stage, —the  Perceptive  Faculties.— Second 
Stage,— the  Conceptive  Representative  Faculties.  — 
Third  Stage, — the  Cognitive  Faculties.  Fourth  Stage, 
— the  Cogitative  Faculties. 
Essential  Points  to  be  considered  in  relation  to 
Method  as  applied  to  Education  -  -  -       85 

1.  Nature  of  the  Faculties.  (1.)  The  peculiar  Function 
of  each  Faculty.  (2.)  Mutual  Relation  of  the  Facul- 
ties— Relation  of  Succession — Relation  of  Assimilation 
— Relation  of  Aggregation.  (3)  The  Faculties  consid- 
ered with  respect  to  their  simultaneous  Action  and 
Cultivation. 

2.  The  Subjects  best  adapted  for  the  Cultivation  of  the 
different  Faculties. 

3.  Nature  of  Motives  acting  on  each  class  of  Faculties. 


CONTENTS.  XI 

4.  The  Habits  of  Action  to  be  established  in  relation  to 
each  Class  of  Faculties. 

5.  The  Methods  of  Instruction  adapted  to  each  Class  of 
Faculties. 

6.  Application  of  Results  to  the  different  Periods  of  Ed- 
ucation; Five  Educational  Periods, — Infancy, — Early 
Childhood,— Childhood,— Early  Youth,— Youth. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

General    PRiNCirLEs   of    Teaching,    or  Elements  of 
Method  .......  lOO 

We  should  follow  out  the  Intention  of  Nature.  Princi- 
ple of  Utility  and  Development.  Principle  of  Harmo- 
nious Development.  Instruction  should  be  progressive. 
Principle  of  Self-development.  We  should  appeal  to 
the  Senses.  The  Reasoning  Faculties  should  be  cul- 
tivated on  an  enlarged  Basis.  Teaching  from  the 
Simple  to  the  Complex.  Facts  taught  before  Causes, 
&c.  The  Concrete  before  the  Abstract.  Constructive 
Teaching.  Principles  before  rules.  Oral  and  Collect- 
ive Teaching — Principles  of  School  Classification.  In- 
struction should  give  Pleasure — to  secure  the  Attention 
—the  Principle  of  School  Routines— First  or  Prelimi- 
nary Lessons— The  Infant  School  System — Imposition 
of  Tasks — School  Discipline.  Thorough  Teaching — 
Reproduction  of  Lessons — Examples  and  Applications 
— Reiterations  of  Lessons.     Cultivation  pf  Habits. 


PART  11.— ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  INTEL- 
LECTUAL AND  MORAL  FACULTIES. 

CHAPTER  I. 
Pbeliminary  Notions  -  -  -  -  1Q2 

Importance  of  Psychological  Analysis  in  relation  to 
Teaching.  A  Glance  at  our  Childhood  and  Early 
Youth.  A  Cursory  View  of  our  Intellectual  and  Moral 
Faculties,  as  regards  their  mode  of  Development. 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  II. 

CULTIVAITON  OF  THE  INTELLECTUAL  FACULTIES.— CULTIVA- 
TION OF  THE  Perceptive  Faculties  and  of  the 
Faculties  of  Primitive  Judgment,  Conception, 
Imitation,  Abstraction,  and  Language  -  175 

The  Senses.  Knowledge  derived  from  Experience.  The 
Cultivation  of  the  Senses  necessarily  includes  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  Perceptive  Faculties.  Certain  Proper- 
ties detected  by  different  Senses.  Children  should 
express  in  Language  the  Results  of  their  Observations 
and  Judgments.  The  Conceptive  Faculties  should 
be  cultivated  with  the  Perceptive  Faculties.  Notes- 
of  a  Lesson  for  cultivating  the  Conceptive  Faculties. 
Definition  of  Terms— of  Form,  «&c.,  how  given. 
Children  should  write  their  ideas  in  their  own  Lan- 
guage. 

CHAPTER  III. 

Cultivation  of  the  Intellectual  Faculties,  continued. 
— Cultivation  of  the  Faculty  of  Attention        -  186 

Importance  of  Habit.  Attention  should  be  voluntary. 
Suggestive  Teaching.  Causes  which  tend  to  destroy 
the  Habit.  Fresh  Motives,  &c.  Mode  of  treating 
Boys  of  different  Tempers,  Tastes,  and  Talents,— 
the  Feeble— the  Sluggish— the  Volatile — the  Timid — 
the  Quick.  A  Digression  on  Thought,  Language  and 
Genius. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Cultivation  of  the  Intellectual  Faculties,  continued. 
— Cultivation  of  Memory  and  Recollection        -  206 

Memory  influenced  by  Attention,  Habits,  and  Associa- 
tions. Philosophical  Associations.  Rules  for  the  Cul- 
tivation of  Memory,  applied  to  various  Subjects  of 
Instruction,  in  the  Course  of  which  the  Method  of 
Contrast  and  Comparison,  and  that  of  picturing  out 
Scenes,  are  fully  explained. 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

CHAPTER  V. 
Cultivation  of  the  Intellectual  Faculties,  continued. 
Imagination  and  Taste.  .  .  -  -         247 

Imagination  dependent  on  Culture.  The  Picture  Style 
of  Teaching.  The  Imagination  cultivated  by  Poetry, 
Fables,  and  Tales.  The  Sentiment  of  the  Beautiful 
cultivated  by  Drawing  and  Music. 

CHAPTER  VI 

Cultivation  op  the  Intellectual  Faculties,  continued. 
—Reason  and  Judgment  ;  Wit  and  Invention        -  354 

General  Principles  for  the  Cultivation  of  the  Reasoning 
Powers.  Relations  of  Things  and  Events,  viewed  in 
six  Distinct  Aspects.  How  processes  of  Reasoning 
should  be  anal}/ zed.  Sources  of  False  Reasoning 
pointed  out.  Rules  for  the  Conduct  of  the  Under- 
standing. How  to  foster  the  Development  of  the  In- 
ventive Powers. 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Cultivation  of  the  Moral  Faculties  -  -  283 

General  Principles.  Moral  Training  based  on  Religion. 
The  Sentiments  of  Veneration  and  Faith.  The  Benev- 
olent Affections.  Habits  of  Action.  Influence  of  Ex- 
ample. The  three  Cardinal  School  Virtues:  Truth- 
fulness—Honesty— Humility.  Classification  of  Sub- 
jects in  relation  to  the  Cultivation  of  the  Intellectual 
and  Moral  Faculties. 


PART  III.— ON  THE  COMPARATIVE  ADVANTAGES 
OF  DIFFERENT  METHODS  AND  SYSTEMS  OF 
INSTRUCTION. 

Systems  of  Instruction  .  .  .  .  gos 

The  Individual  and  Collective  Systems.  Home  Educa- 
tion. The  Pupil-Teacher  System.  The  Mixed  Sys- 
tem. 


XIV  C0:N  TEXTS. 

Methods  op  Instruction  ....  311 

Synthetic  and  Analytic  Methods.  Examples  of  the 
Synthetic  and  Analytic  Methods  of  Teaching.  Inter- 
rogative or  Catechetical  Method.  Principles  and 
Rules  common  to  the  two  Forms  of  Interrogation — 
Special  Rules  for  Examination  Questions— Special 
Principles  and  Rules  relative  to  Suggestive  Interroga- 
tions—The Simultaneous  Method — Examples  of  Simul- 
taneous Teaching  after  the  Catechetical  Method — The 
Elliptical  Form  of  Teaching — Examples.  The  Con- 
structive Method.  The  Illustrative  Method.  The 
Lecturing  Method.  Mixed  Method.  On  the  Repro- 
duction of  Lessons  in  Writing.  On  certain  Plans  or 
Artifices  for  Economizing  Time,  &c. — An  Examina- 
tion Lesson  on  Spelling — An  Examination  Lesson  on 
Arithmetic.  Respective  Advantages  of  the  three  Great 
Methods  of  Examination.  Ou  the  Preparation  of 
Lessons.  Notes  of  a  Lesson.  On  the  Periodical  Ex- 
amination of  Classes  and  Registration  of  Progress.  On 
the  Qualifications  of  the  Schoolmaster  in  relation  to 
his  Professional  Duties — The  Teacher's  Attainments — 
The  Teacher's  Capabilities  and  Character.  Aptitude 
for  Teaching.  On  School  Registers  for  Recording  the 
Result  of  Different  Methods  of  Instruction,  and  also 
for  testing  the  Capabilities  of  Teachers  in  relation  to 
these  Methods.  General  Conclusions  derived  from  the 
Writer's  Registration  of  the  Results  of  Methods,  &c. 


PART  IV.— ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  DIFFERENT 
SYSTEMS    AND    METHODS    TO    THE    VARIOUS 
BRANCHES  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION. 
The  Scriptures;  History;  &c.  -  -  -  347 

Reading  AND  Spelling;  Etymology;  Grammar  -       350 

Specimen  of  a  Reading  Lesson.  The  Look  and  Say  Plan 
— The  Phonic  Plan  On  teaching  the  Alphabet,  &c. 
Grammar  more  fully  considered — Lessons  on  Gram- 


CONTENTS.  XV 

mar — Lessons  on  Composition  and  the  Analj'Sis  of 
Sentences. 
Arithmetic  ------  358 

Lessons  on  the  Addition  of  Fractions.      Lesson  on  Rule 
of  Three.     Mental  Arithmetic. 
Geography  -...-.  363 

Dr.^wing  -------       364 

General  Principles  and  Rules.  Model  Drawing— Dupuis's 
System. 

Writing  ...---.      376 

Pr-\ctical  Geometry  and  Mensuration        -  -  377 

Drawing  Instruments,  &c.      Lessons  on  Geometry — Ob- 
servations relative  to  Familiar  Modes  of  Exposition. 
Algebra.     A' Lesson  on  Equations  -  -  -         381 

Mechanical  and  Physical  Science.     A  Lesson  on  Chem- 
istry --..--  383 

Natural  History    ------        385 


PART   v.— ON   SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION  AND  DIS- 
CIPLINE. 

School  Buildings  and  Fittings.  School  Apparatus— 
List  of  Apparatus  for  General  Use — Routines  of  Les- 
sons .-.-.-  389 

Classification.     The  Pupil-Teachers  -  -  392 

School  Discipline.     Order,  &c.      ....      395 


'tjkiveesittj 


THE 


PHILOSOPHY  OF  EDUCATION: 


THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  TEACHING. 


INTRODUCTION. 


As  man  is  not  only  a  physical,  but  also  a  thinking  and 
an  accountable  being,  so  therefore  education,  in  its  com- 
prehensive sense,  may  be  viewed  in  three  aspects — that 
is,  in  relation  to  our  pbysicial,  intellectual,  and  moral 
nature.  I  here  propose  to  consider  the  last  two  depart- 
ments of  education;  to  determine,  if  possible,  the  best 
methods  whereby  our  nature  may  be  educated  intellect- 
ually and  morally.  The  end  of  all  education  should  be, 
to  promote  man's  happiness,  not  only  during  his  present 
transitory  existence,  but  throughout  the  eternity  which 
is  to  follow. 

The  principal  means  of  education  in  this  country  are — 
school  instruction,  books,  public  lectures  and  discourses, 
and  exhibitions  of  works  of  science  and  art.  But  the 
efficiency  of  all  the  popular  means  of  education  are 
dependent  upon,  and  in  fact  inseparably  connected  with, 

A 


*Z  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

the  primary  instruction  of  the  schoolroom.  The  treas- 
ures of  our  literature  and  science  are  inaccessible  to  him 
who  has  not  been  taught  the  first  rudiments  of  language. 
Hence  it  is,  that  the  brilliant  productions  of  the  poetic 
genius,  or  the  gigantic  creations  of  the  science  of  any 
particular  age,  afford  us  no  data  for  estimating  the  state 
of  education  among  the  mass  of  the  people  of  that  age. 
On  this  subject  John  Forster  eloquently  observes: — 
"Long  after  the  brilliant  show  of  talent,  and  the  creation 
of  literary  supplies  for  the  national  use,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  last  century,  the  deplorable  mental  condition  of 
the  people  remained  in  no  very  great  degree  altered.  To 
pass  from  beholding  that  bright  and  sumptuous  display 
in  order  to  see  what  there  was  corresponding  to  it  in  the 
subsequent  state  of  the  popular  cultivation,  is  like  going 
out  from  some  magnificent  apartment,  with  its  lustres, 
music,  refections,  and  assemblage  of  elegant  personages, 
to  be  beset  by  beggers  in  the  gloom  and  cold  of  a  winter 
night." 

The  schoolmaster  must  begin  the  work  of  education. 
The  subject  of  method,  therefore,  should  be  treated 
chiefly  in  relation  to  the  work  of  the  schoolmaster. 

Education  is  a  Science  as  well  as  an  Art. 

Practical  teachers,  as  well  as  the  public  generally, 
had,  until  recently,  regarded  education  more  as  an  art 
than  as  a  science,  consisting  merely  of  a  few  arbitrary 
and  empirical  rules  which  may  be  modified  or  altered 
to  suit  the  tastes  and  attainments  of  the  teacher,  or  to 
answer  the  opinions  and  circumstances  of  the  managers 
of  schools.  This  unfortunate  prejudice  has,  no  doubt, 
had  itB  origin,  to  a  great  extent,  in  the  fact  that  the 


ETC.  3 

greater  portion  of  the  teachers  were  unfit  for  their  office. 
Few  minds  were  capable  of  viewing  education  apart 
from  its  miserable  and  unworthy  representatives,  or  dis- 
sociating it  from  the  operation  of  the  schools  which  came 
within  the  sphere  of  their  own  immediate  observation. 

Twenty  years  ago,  anybody  was  considered  good 
enough  for  a  schoolmaster.  If  a  tradesman  failed  in 
business,  he  was  thought  to  be  learned  enough  for  a 
schoolmaster;  a  feeble,  sickly  youth,  who  was  not  con- 
sidered strong  enough  to  practise  any  regular  trade,  was 
thought  to  be  sufficiently  qualified  to  undertake  the 
duties  of  school  keeping;  if  a  mechanic  happened  to  get 
a  limb  fractured  he  would,  as  a  matter  of  course,  save 
himself  from  starvation  by  opening  a  school;  when  a 
man  who  had  seen  better  days  applied  to  the  parish 
officers  for  out-door  relief,  they  gravely  debated  the 
question  whether  it  was  more  expedient  to  send  him  to 
the  quary  to  break  stones,  or  to  confer  upon  him  the 
office  of  parish  schoolmaster.*  Such  was  the  low  esti- 
mate formed  of  the  qualifications  requisite  for  a  school- 
master. This  state  of  things,  doubtless,  tended  to  re- 
tard the  progress  of  education  both  as  a  science  and  an 
art,  for  the  odium  attached  to  the  office,  as  well  as  the 
insufficiency  of  the  remuneration,  prevented  properly 
qualified  persons  from  undertaking  the  duties.  But 
within  the  last  fifteen  years,  a  change  in  public  opinion 
has  been  gradually  taking  place  :  the  working  and 
middle-classes  have  been  led  to  see  the  value  of  a  sound 
elementary  education,  and   thereby  to   estimate   more 

*  In  the  towns  of  Newcastle  and  (xateshead,  twenty-flve  years  ago,  two 
schoolmasters  had  wooden  legs,— one  had  a  cork  leg,  two  went  upon 
crutches,  two  were  little  better  than  deformed  dwarfs,  and  not  a  few 
were  '♦  sticklt  ministers  "  and  broken-down  tradesmen. 


4  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

highly  the  difficulties  and  importaDce  of  the  duties  of 
the  common  schoolmaster.  This  salutary  change  is  in 
a  great  measure  due  to  the  government  schemes  of  edu- 
cation. I  confidently  hope  that  the  day  is  not  distant 
when  the  force  of  public  opinion  will  elevate  education 
into  the  rank  of  a  recognized  science. 

Elementary  education  has  two  great  ends:  1.  To  de- 
velop the  intellectual  and  moral  faculties;  or,  in  other 
words,  to  develop  the  faculties  of  the  perfect  man; 
2.  To  communicate  to  the  pupil  that  sort  of  knowledge 
which  is  most  likely  to  be  useful  to  him  in  the  sphere 
of  life  which  Providence  has  assigned  him. 

The  science  of  education  must  be  based  upon  the 
nature  of  the  being  to  be  educated;  that  is  to  say,  upon 
the  laws  which  govern  the  development  of  the  intellectual 
and  moral  faculties.  These  laws  may  be  determined  as 
well  by  observation  as  by  psychological  analysis. 

Every  faculty  of  our  nature  has  its  proper  period  and 
peculiar  mode  of  development. 

Now  the  philosophical  educator  will  always  suit  his 
methods  of  instruction  to  the  age  of  his  pupils,  or  rather 
to  the  state  of  the  intellectual  and  moral  development 
of  the  faculties  of  his  pupils;  and  he  will  also  administer 
to  them  that  intellectual  aliment,  both  as  to  kind  and 
degree,  which  is  best  calculated  to  promote  the  growth 
of  the  faculties  at  their  different  stages  of  development. 
Method,  and  the  piinciples  of  method,  therefore,  neces- 
sarily become  to  him  distinct  and  all-important  matters 
of  inquiry. 

A  good  teacher,  before  laying  down  any  plans  for 
the  management  of  his  school,  makes  himself  acquainted 
with  the  tempers,  habits,  capabilities,  and  attainments  of 


EDUCATION   AS    A   SCIENCE,    ETC.  5 

his  pupils.  He  then  asks  himself  the  two  great  ques- 
tions;— What  shall  I  teach?  How  shall  I  teach?  He 
is  well  aware  that  these  questions  cannot  be  satisfac- 
torily answered  without  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
nature  of  the  beings  whom  he  has  to  teach,  as  well  as  a 
comprehensive  acquaintance  with  the  various  methods 
whereby  instruction  may  be  communicated. 

All  artificial  and  unnatural  methods  of  instruction, 
violating  the  laws  of  mind,  necessarily  demand  the  use 
of  unhealthful  stimulants.  There  is  always  a  want  of 
organization  in  schools  where  the  plans  and  methods  of 
the  master  are  framed  without  any  regard  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  human  mind,  or  the  peculiar  tempers, 
tastes,  and  capabilities  of  the  pupils:  such  masters 
always  blame  their  pupils  for  the  failures  of  their  system, 
but  never  seem  to  be  aware  that  the  excellence  of  a 
system  depends  upon  its  adaptation  to  the  intellectual 
and  moral  conditions  of  these  pupils.  A  teacher  who  is 
ignorant  of  human  nature,  is  like  an  engineer  who 
sets  to  work  to  erect  a  bridge  before  he  has  made  him- 
self acquainted  with  the  properties  of  the  material  em- 
ployed in  the  structure;  when  his  work  is  completed, 
he  finds,  perhaps,  that  the  material  is  ruptured  by  the 
pressure,  or  by  the  expansion  due  to  heat;  it  is  true, 
he  might  console  himself  with  the  reflection  that  his 
plan  would  have  been  excellent  if  it  had  not  been  for 
the  peculiar  properties  of  the  material.  A  wise  en- 
gineer would  first  make  himself  acquainted  with  the 
nature  and  properties  of  his  material,  and  then,  knowing 
the  difficulties  which  he  would  have  to  encounter,  he 
would  provide  against  them  accordingly.  In  like  manner 
the  teacher  who  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  laws 


6  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCA.TTON. 

regulating  the  juvenile  mind,  suits  his  methods  of  in- 
struction to  the  soul  which  he  has  to  rear,  and,  fully 
foreseeing  the  difficulties  which  he  has  to  encounter, 
lays  his  plans  accordingly, — he  is  quite  prepaied  to 
supply  strength  to  what  may  be  weak,  and  to  introduce 
a  self -corrective  agency  to  meet  any  ebullitions  of  temper 
or  waywardness  of  disposition. 

Our  ignorance  of  mental  philosophy  has  hitherto  led 
us  into  various  erroneous  methods  and  systems  of  edu- 
cation. The  teacher  showed  an  ignorance  of  the  tastes 
and  capabilities  of  the  infant  mind,  when  he  overtasked 
his  juvenile  pupils  with  the  dull,  dry  detail  of  technical 
learning,  in  the  place  of  communicating  to  them  that 
kind  of  knowledge  which  is  best  calculated  to  foster  the 
deveh)pment  of  their  perceptive  and  observing  faculties. 

Teachers,  in  their  ignorance,  at  one  time  believed  that 
the  first  object  of  primary  instruction  is  to  cultivate  the 
verbal  memory  of  their  pupils,  when,  in  fact,  the  verbal 
memory  is  one  of  the  few  faculties  of  our  nature  which 
need  no  cultivation.  This  erroneous  opinion  led  to  the 
adoption  of  the  task  system.  In  accordance  with  this 
system,  little  boys  had  to  commit  to  memory  frightful 
colunms  of  spelling,  long  paragraphs  of  geography,  ab- 
stract grammatical  definitions,  declensions  of  nouns,  and 
conjugations  of  verbs.  The  debasing  system  of  rewards 
and  punishments  formed  a  necessary  adjunct  to  this  un- 
natural system  of  instruction. 

In  this  system  the  cultivation  of  the  reasoning  powers 
was  entirely  disregarded,  and  the  aids  of  philosophical 
memory,  or  the  faculty  <>f  M«!>^<>cintioji,  wore  nov<'r  called 
in  requisition. 

The  same  erroneous  opinion  of  human    nature   led  to 


EDUCATION    AS    A    SCIENCE,    ETC.  7 

the  adoption  of  the  rule  and  rote  system  of  instruction, 
whereby  the  pupil  had  to  work  out  results  by  formulas 
and  dogmas  rather  than  by  the  independent  and  health- 
ful exercise  of  his  own  reasoning  powers.  For  example, 
in  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  and  practical  geometry, 
the  pupil  was  required  to  work  out  his  problems  by  a 
rule  appealing  to  his  memory  and  simple  apprehension, 
rather  than  by  the  exercise  of  his  own  reasoning  powers. 

These  unnatural  methods  of  instruction  have  given 
rise  to  our  debasing  systems  of  discipline.  Under  a 
proper  system  of  teaching,  children  rarely  require  any 
other  motive  to  attention  than  the  pleasure  which  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge  affords  them  ;  but  what 
natural  motive  can  induce  a  child  to  study  what  is  above 
his  capacity,  or  to  commit  to  memory  what  he  cannot 
comprehend  ?  hence  the  teacher's  only  resource  was  to 
act  upon  the  vanity  or  upon  the  fear  of  his  pupils. 

The  art  of  education  consists  in  the  practice  of  its 
principles.  It  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  science 
of  education,  that  any  other  art  does  to  the  scientific 
principles  of  that  art.  A  man  may  be  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  tiie  principles  of  any  particular  art,  with- 
out being  an  adept  in  the  practice  of  it  ;  in  order  to 
become  this,  he  must  practise  the  art  until  he  has  ac- 
quired the  requisite  amount  of  tact  and  skill.  At  the 
same  time,  it  must  be  observed,  that  the  highest  amount 
of  skill  can  only  be  obtained  by  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  principles  of  the  art,  combined  with  the  constant 
application  of  these  principles.  Thus,  for  example,  a 
man  may  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  principles 
of  architectural  construction,  and  yet  he  may  not  be  able 
to  frame  a  door  or  to  build  a  shed.     In  like  manner  a 


8  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

raan  may  be  intimately  acquainted  with  all  the  leading 
principles  of  education,  and  yet,  at  the  same  time,  he 
may  not  be  able  to  give  efficient  instruction  to  a  class  of 
little  boys.  It  is  a  lamentable  error  to  suppose  that  if 
a  man  has  knowledge  he  must  necessarily  possess  the  art 
of  communicating  that  knowledge.  In  order  that  a  man 
may  become  a  good  teacher,  he  must  not  only  be  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  the  various  branches  of  element- 
ary education,  and  intimately  acquainted  with  the  great 
leading  scientific  principles  of  education,  but  he  must 
also  acquire  that  tact  and  skill  in  the  management  of 
numbers  and  classes,  and  that  fluency  of  diction,  power 
of  illustration,  and  facility  of  availing  himself  of  con- 
tingent circumstances,  which  can  only  be  attained  by 
long  practice  and  patient  study. 

The  art  of  education,  without  a  due  regard  to  its  sci- 
ence, degenerates  into  empiricism  ;  and  the  science, 
without  the  practice  of  the  art,  becomes  little  better 
than  a  code  of  barren  abstractions  without  the  vital 
principle  of  development. 

The  philosophy  of  education  should  go  hand  in  hand 
with  the  practice  of  it ; — every  step  of  advance  taken 
by  the  one,  should  be  followed  by  a  corresponding  pro- 
gress of  the  other  ;  philosophy  should  suggest  plans 
and  theories,  art  should  test  them  and  try  them  ;  phil- 
osophy should  build  up  a  structure  of  general  principles 
and  rules  ;  art  should  supply  the  facts — the  materials — 
by   which,   and   upon   which,  the   structure  should  be 

reared. 

Division  of  the  Subject. 

The  philosophy  of  education  may  be  divided  into  five 

parts  ; — 


DIVISION  OF  THE  SUBJECT.  9 

1.  On  method,  as  applied  to  education. 

2.  On  the  cultivation  of   the  intellectual  and  moral 
faculties. 

3.  On  the  comparative  advantages  of  different  systems 
and  methods  of  education. 

4.  On  the  application  of  different  systems  and  methods 
to  the  various  branches  of  elementary  education. 

5.  On  school  organization  and  discipline. 


10  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCA.TION. 


Part  I. 

ON  METHOD   AS  APPLIED  TO   EDUCATION. 


CHAPTER  I. 

METHODS  ANn  SYSTEMS  OF   INSTRUCTK  »N.— DEFINITION  OF  TERMS,  ETC. 

Different  Methods   and  Systems  of  Education  at  present  em- 
ployed in  Elementary  Schools, 

By  a  method  of  education  is  meant  the  peculiar  way 
in  which  a  subject  is  taught  ;  and  by  a  system  is  meant 
those  peculiar  arrangements,  both  as  to  organization  and 
modes  of  teaching,  whereby  instruction  generally  may 
be  given  to  the  pupils  of  a  school.  A  system  is  the  de- 
velopment of  a  method  applied  to  certain  objects. 

A  difference  of  opinion  at  present  exists  relative  to  the 
use  of  the  terra  method  as  applied  to  education.  Ac- 
cording to  some  writers,  method  simply  means  the  way 
in  which  a  subject  of  instruction  may  be  treated  ;  so 
that  there  are  only  two  methods  of  education,  namely, 
Synthesis  and  Analysis.  Such  a  restrictive  use  of  the 
term  is  not  only  based  on  a  contracted  view  of  the  sub- 
ject, but  it  does  not  give  the  entire  conception  usually 
associated  with  the  term.  We  use  the  term  in  a  more 
comprehensive  sense  :  A  method  of  teaching  compre- 
hends, not  merely  the  way  in  which  the  subject-matter 
is  treated,  but  also  the  means,  artifices,  forms  of  expres- 
sion, &c.,  that  are  employed  in  conveying  instruction  to 
a  class  of  children  in  a  common  school. 


SYNTHESIS    AND    ANALYSIS.  11 

There  are  two  great  methods  whereby  a  subject  may 
be  treated,  viz.,  Synthesis  and  Analysis.  By  the 
former  method  we  put  the  parts  of  a  subject  together  ; 
by  the  hitter  we  take  the  subject-matter  to  pieces.  The 
method  of  synthesis  is  the  method  of  induction,  whereby 
we  ascend  step  by  step  from  the  simple  to  the  complex 
— from  the  particular  to  the  general  formula  ;  the  meth- 
od of  analysis  is  the  method  of  deduction,  whereby 
we  descend  from  the  abstract  principle  to  the  various 
particular  forms  which  it  comprehends.  As  both  meth- 
ods are  employed  in  the  discovery  of  truth,  so  both 
methods  may  be  used  in  the  exposition  of  truth.  The 
expenraeutalist  may  show  the  composition  of  water  syn- 
thetically by  holding  a  tumbler  over  the  flame  of  a  can- 
dle (or  a  flame  of  hydrogen  gas),  at  the  same  time  call- 
m^  attention  to  the  moisture  that  is  formed  on  the 
interior  surface  of  the  glass;  or,  more  exactly,  by  de- 
tonating, by  means  of  the  electric  spark,  the  proper 
mixture  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen;  in  these  experiments 
water  is  formed  by  the  combination  of  its  elements: — 
he  may  also  show  the  composition  of  water  analytically 
by  means  of  the  galvanic  battery;  in  this  case  the  poles 
of  the  battery  analyze  or  decompose  the  water,  that  is, 
reduce  it  to  its  simple  elements,  the  hydrogen  being  at- 
tracted by  the  one  pole,  and  the  oxygen  by  the  other. 
We  teach  arithmetic  deductively,  or  analytically,  when 
we  lay  down  a  general  rule  and  require  our  pupils  to 
work  out  the  particular  example  by  tliat  rule,  for  in  this 
case  we  proceed  from  the  general  formula  to  the  particu- 
lar example — from,  the  abstract  princi})le  to  its  special 
application.  On  the  contrary,  we  teach  arithmetic  in- 
ductively, or  synthetically,  when  we  proceed  at  once  to 


12  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

work  out,  step  by  step,  the  particular  example  from  cer- 
tain simple,  known  elementary  principles,  without  taking 
any  abstract  rule  for  granted;  in  this  case  the  pupils  are 
led  to  prove  the  rule  for  themselves. 

The  method  of  synthesis  is  constructive;  by  this 
method  the  skilful  teacher  builds  up  thought  upon 
thought — truth  upon  truth — until  his  pupils  have,  almost 
insensibly,  acquired  a  vast  accumulation  of  knowledge. 
I  have  called  the  method  of  synthesis  a  constructive 
METHOD,  because  it  is  analogous  to  the  way  in  which 
mechanical  contrivances  are  completed:  thus,  the 
ingenious  builder  lays  stone  upon  stone,  beam  upon 
beam,  until  he  has  reared  a  vast  and  beautiful  structure, 
exciting,  it  may  be,  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the 
world:  in  this  way,  too,  surprising  results  may  be  at- 
tained in  education. 

Synthesis  may  be  called  a  suggestive  method  of  in- 
stniction;  because  it  is  progressive,  proceeding,  step  by 
step,  from  the  known  to  the  unknown, — from  the  simple 
to  the  complex. 

By  far  the  larger  number  of  the  great  physical  laws 
of  nature  were  discovered  by  induction,  and  even  many 
of  our  leading  mathematical  theorems  and  principles 
were  established  by  the  same  process.  Now  if  it  be  true 
(and  we  hive  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  true;  that  the 
method  of  exposition  should  correspond  to  the  method 
of  discovery,  it  follows  that  the  method  of  induction  or 
synthesis  is,  for  the  most  part,  the  more  eligible  for 
primary  instruction.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  be 
observed,  that  there  are  certain  subjects  of  knowledge 
which  may  be  efficiently  taught  by  the  method  of  analy- 


DIFFERENT   METHODS    AND   SYSTEMS.  13 

sis.  But  this  subject  will  hereafter  receive  a  more  ade- 
quate consideration. 

The  methods  of  synthesis  and  analysis  may  be  either 
DEMONSTRATIVE  or  DOGMATIC.  When  the  teacher  uses 
the  former  method  of  communicating  knowledge,  he 
addresses  the  observing  and  reasoning  faculties  of  his 
pupils,  who  believe  in  what  is  communicated  to  them 
because  they  see  it  to  be  true,  or  because  they  can  prove 
it  to  be  true.  On  the  contrary,  when  he  uses  the  latter 
method,  he  appeals  to  the  memory  and  faith  of  his 
pupils,  who,  in  this  case,  believe  in  what  is  communicated 
to  them  simply  on  the  testimony  of  their  teacher — they 
believe  because  their  teacher  says  so. 

Demonstrative  teaching  embraces  all  those  plans  and 
artifices  whereby  a  knowledge  of  principles  may  be  more 
or  less  completely  communicated  to  the  pupils:  on  the 
other  hand,  dogmatic  teaching  gives  rules  and  formula 
in  the  place  of  principles  and  investigations. 

Besides  these  general  methods  of  teaching,  there 
are  certain  modes  or  artifices  which  have  regard  to  the 
peculiar  form  or  way  in  which  the  knowledge  is  com- 
municated. The  INTERROGATIVE  method  teaches  by 
question  and  answer;  it  may  be  used  simply  for  repro- 
ducing the  knowledge  which  has  been  already  commu- 
nicated to  the  pupil,  or  it  may  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  principle  of  suggestion;  and  then  it  assumes  the 
form  of  an  important  instrument  of  intellectual  culture, 
which  may  be  called  the  suggestive  method  of  inter- 
rogation. 

"^rhe  elliptical  form  of  instruction  requires  the  pupils 
to  fill  up  certain  blanks  or  ellipses,  which  the  teacher 
intentionally   leaves   in   hi^  dts^o.ufse.      This   form   of 

uiriVEEsiTr) 


14  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

instruction  is  only  a  slight  modification  of  the  sug- 
gestive method  already  mentioned.  In  both  methods 
the  teacher  and  his  pupils  carry  on  a  sort  of  tete  a  tete 
lecture. 

In  the  SIMULTANEOUS  form  of  instruction,  the  pupils 
are  supposed  to  give  simultaneous  responses  to  the 
teacher's  questions  or  suggestions.  This  simple  arti- 
fice has  been  sometimes  confounded  with  the  collective 
system  of  instruction,  with  which  it  is  necessarily  asso- 
ciated. 

The  ILLUSTRATIVE  METHOD  consists  in  conveying  a 
knowledge  of  abstruse  things,  or  even  ordinary  things, 
by  means  of  illustrations  addressed  to  the  senses  or  to 
the  imagination  of  the  learner. 

The  LECTURING  METHOD  cousists  in  giving  the  lesson 
in  the  form  of  a  continuous  lecture,  all  questions  on  the 
subject  of  the  lesson  being  deferred  until  it  is  finished. 

A  combination  of  any  of  these  methods  may  be  called 
a  MIXED  METHOD  of  instruction. 

The  methogl  generally  employed  by  good  elementary 
teachers,  as  shall  be  hereafter  shown,  is  generally  a 
combination  of  the  demonstrative  and  the  synthetic, 
while  that  which  is  usually  adopted  by  sluggish  and 
careless  masters  is  a  combination  of  the  dogmatic  and 
the  analytic. 

There  are  two  leading  systems  of  teaching  at  present 
in  use  which  have  regard  to  number  or  organization; 
the  one  may  be  called  the  collective  system  of  teach- 
ing, which  consists  in  the  teaching  of  a  considerable 
number  at  one  time;  the  other  the  individual  system 
of  teaching,  which  consists  in  the  teaching  of  one  pupil 
at  a  time. 


DIFFERENT   METHODS    AND    SYSTEMS.  16 

The  PUPIL  TEACHER  System,  which  has  been  recently 
introduced  into  this  country,  may  be  regarded  as  forming 
an  essential  part  of  the  collective  system  of  teaching  as 
it  is  at  present  practised  in  our  elementary  schools.  The 
pupil  teachers  are  supposed  to  follow  the  same  plan  of 
teaching  as  their  master,  and  under  his  supervision. 
The  MONITORIAL  SYSTEM  of  Lancaster  and  Bell  contains 
the  essential  features  of  the  system  of  pupil  teachers; 
but  with  this  important  difference,  that  whilst  the 
MONITOR  is  merely  a  boy  selected  by  the  master  from 
the  pupils  in  his  school,  the  pupil  teacher  is  a  paid 
official  recognized  by  her  Majesty's  Inspectors,  and  who 
is  time  after  time  examined  by  them,  and  receives  regular 
instruction  from  the  master  in  all  the  duties  of  school 
keeping,  with  the  view  of  fittting  him  for  the  discharge 
of  his  immediate  duties,  and  also  with  the  view  of  pre- 
paring him  for  the  profession  of  schoolmaster. 

The  system  of  home  instruction  consists  in  assign- 
ing to  the  pupils  certain  lessons  or  exercises  to  be 
studied  or  completed  at  home.  This  system  may  be 
combined  with  either  of  the  two  leading  systems  just 
described. 

The  tripartite  system,  first  proposed  by  Professor 
Moseley,  has  received  its  name  from  the  architectural 
arrangements  of  the  school.  In  this  system  the  school- 
room is  divided  into  three  apartments,  in  one  of  which 
the  master  is  supposed  to  teach  all  the  classes  in  rotation. 
The  leading  object  of  this  plan. is  to  bring  all  the  chil- 
dren in  the  school  under  the  direct  instruction  of  the 
master,  and  to  counteract  undue  noise. 

A  combination  of  any  of  these  systems  may  be  called 
a  MIXED  system  of  instruction. 


16  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

The  word  method  signifies  a  way  of  transit,  or  the 
way  of  passing  from  one  thing  to  another.  According 
to  the  philosophical  acceptation  of  the  term  it  compre- 
hends the  idea  of  unity,  associated  with  progression,  or 
a  succession  of  uniform  sequences.  To  arrive  at  this 
idea,  we  must  exercise  the  faculties  of  abstraction,  by 
which  we  view  many  things  as  one;  by  which  we  con- 
template not  facts  only,  but  likewise  the  relations  of 
facts;  by  which  we  recognize  the  law  which  connects 
these  relations. 

The  comparative  advantages  and  defects  of  the  dif- 
ferent methods  and  systems  of  teaching  will  be  hereafter 
more  fully  considered. 


CHAP.  II. 

IMPORTANCE    OF    METHOD.— HISTORY    OF    METHOD.— PRESENT    CONDITION    AND 
FUTURE  PROGRESS  OF  EDUCATION.— PHILOSOPHY  OF  METHOD. 

Importance  of  Method. 

There  is  method  in  Education.  It  is  a  dangerous  error 
to  suppose  that  any  man  may  teach  if  he  has  only  the 
requisite  amount  of  attainments.  Can  it  be  possible 
that  the  art  of  training  and  developing  the  various 
faculties,  emotions,  and  principles  of  an  immortal  and 
accountable  soul  is  the  only  art  which  we  have  by  in- 
tuition? Is  the  destiny  of  the  noblest  creation  of  God, 
the  immaterial,  the  thinking,  the  undying  principle, 
fashioned  after  His  own  image,  to  be  intrusted  to  the 
care  of  him  who  has  never  studied  the  vast  and  complex 
relations  of  the  task  which  he  undertakes,  and  who,  in 


IMPORTANCE   OP   METHOD.  17 

the  impious  pride  of  self-sufficiency,  despises  the  accu- 
mulated experience  of  those  who  have  spent  their  lives 
in  the  work  of  teaching,  and  have  borne  unmistakable 
testimony  to  the  difficulties  which  have  beset  them  at 
every  step  in  the  discharge  of  their  sacred  duties? 

There  is  method  in  Art:  the  builder  and  the  ma- 
chinist, the  manufacturer,  the  sculptor,  the  painter,  all 
complete  their  constructions  and  fabrications  on  the 
principles  and  methods  which  embody  the  results  of 
vast  experience,  and  which  have  been  their  constant 
study  for  the  whole  period  of  their  lives.  There  is 
method  in  Science:  there  was  a  want  of  method  when 
the  philosophers  of  antiquity  affirmed,  that  air  and  water 
were  elementary  bodies,  that  the  celestial  bodies  moved 
in  circles,  of  which  the  earth  occupied  the  center,  and 
that  water  rose  in  the  barrel  of  the  common  pump  from 
nature's  horror  of  a  vacuum;  and  even  in  more  recent 
times,  the  same  want  of  method  was  shown  when  Des- 
cartes affirmed  that  the  planetary  bodies  floated  in  a 
whirlpool  of  ether. 

Who  can  estimate  the  marvellous  change  that  has 
been  effected  by  the  philosophy  of  method  first  proposed 
by  Bacon  ?  Nature,  as  if  at  the  touch  of  the  enchanter's 
wand,  yielded  up  her  treasures  of  knowledge;  physical 
science,  after  the  death-like  slumber  of  ages,  sprung  into 
vigorous  existence;  and  even  in  our  own  time,  under 
the  guidance  of  this  method,  mind  has  achieved  the 
most  despotic  dominion  over  matter;  new  sciences  have 
been  born,  far  surpassing  in  utility,  beauty,  and  gran- 
deur all  that  had  been  accumulated  throughout  the  past 
history  of  humanity. 

Poetry  has  its  method.     So  remarkable  is  this  method 


18  PIliLOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATiOiJ. 

that  a  great  poet  will  by  a  single  word — an  idea — open 
to  us  a  whole  series  of  relations  and  conditions.  In 
speaking  of  the  style  of  Shakespeare,  Coleridge  ob- 
serves:— "  Who,  like  him,  could  so  methodically  suit 
the  very  flow  and  tone  of  discourse  to  characters  lying 
so  widely  apart,  in  rank  and  habits  and  peculiarities,  as 
Holoferiies  and  Queon  Katherine,  Falstaff  and  Lear  ? 
When  we  compare  the  pure  English  style  of  Shakespeare 
with  that  of  the  very  best  writers  of  his  day,  we  stand 
astonished  at  the  method  by  which  he  was  directed  in 
the  choice  of  those  words  and  idioms,  which  are  as  fresh 
now  as  in  their  first  bloom ;  nay,  which  are  at  the  present 
moment  at  once  more  energetic,  more  expressive,  more 
natural,  and  more  elegant  than  those  of  the  happiest 
and  most  admired  living  speakers  or  writers." 

There  is  method  in  Oratory.  Who  has  not  felt  the 
power  of  Oratory  ?  Whence  does  this  power  proceed  ? 
An  eloquent  public  speaker  must  always  possess  method; 
he  may  be  without  technical  learning,  and  even  without 
those  refinements  of  manner  and  diction  which  usually 
constitute  a  gentleman;  he  may  be  without  the  prestige 
of  rank,  or  wealth,  or  party,  and  even  without  those 
conventional  literary  or  scientific  titles  which  are  too 
often  accepted  as  the  badges  of  superior  intellect,  or  as 
the  j)a8sport8  to  distinction  and  power;  yet  there  is 
something  in  him  which  rises  superior  to  all  these  dis- 
advantages,— there  is  method,  based  u})on  a  knowledge 
of  the  tastes  and  ruling  passions  of  his  audience,  which 
charms  and  captivates  them  by  its  beauty,  convinces 
them  by  its  exactness  and  transparency,  and  overawes 
them  by  its  depth  and  power.  Beginning  with  a  simple 
detail  of  facts,  ho  generalizes,  abstracts  and  draws  con- 


IMPORTANCE    OF   METHOD.  19 

elusions;  with  a  constant  regard  to  the  final  impression 
which  he  wishes  to  produce,  he  sees  from  the  first  what 
will  be  the  efi^ect  of  each  successive  step;  all  nature  is 
tasked  to  supply  him  with  illustrations  and  analogies, — 
youthful  Spring  with  his  freshness  and  his  song,  or 
golden  Autumn  with  her  stores  of  fruit  and  her  sheaves 
of  corn, — lovely  Summer  with  her  flowers  and  her  sun- 
light, or  stern  Winter  with  his  storms  and  his  shadows, 
— the  air,  the  earth,  the  ocean,  the  dread  magnificence 
of  heaven, — all  may  be  invoked  to  lend  power  and  en- 
chantment to  his  discourse;  from  the  world  about  him 
he  rises  to  the  world  of  thought — from  the  visible  to  the 
invisible — and  there  finds  new  materials  for  argument 
and  persuasion;  having  connected  argument  with  argu- 
ment, and  added  illustration  to  illustration,  he  sums 
up  the  accumulated  evidence,  in  order  that  it  may  fall 
with  the  greatest  effect  upon  the  minds  of  his  audience, 
and  that  they  may  be  convinced  of  the  truth  of  the  lead- 
ing conception,  the  end  and  aim  of  his  discourse.  In  all 
this  there  is  unity  with  variety,  but  it  is  the  variety 
which  arises  out  of  unity, — this  all-prevading  idea 
constitutes  the  method.  The  intellectual  faculties  which 
characterize  the  oratory  are  very  nearly  allied  to  those 
which  are  requisite  for  forming  the  distinguished 
teacher. 

Everything  in  nature  has  its  peculiar  method  of  devel- 
opment; and  this  development  may  in  almost  every  case, 
be  aided  and  improved  by  the  judicious  application  of 
the  principles  of  this  method.  A  grain  of  corn  when 
thrown  into  the  soil  will  germinate,  and  grow,  and  bud, 
and  ripen  into  seed,  without  the  special  care  of  man; 
but  all  these  processes  would  be  very  much  aided  and 


20  PHILOSOPHY    OP   EDUCATION. 

improved  by  the  application  of  the  methods  which  agri- 
cultural chemistry  has  discovered.  Just  so  it  is  with  the 
germ  of  intelligence — the  immaterial  principle.  It  seeks 
to  develop  itself — it  germinates,  grows,  and  blossoms, 
and  ripens  and  expands  into  developed  intelligence,  with 
out  the  application  of  any  artificial  means;  but  the  in- 
telligence thus  developed  without  the  aid  of  culture,  is 
that  of  the  savage,  not  that  of  the  perfect  man,  capable 
of  acting  and  thinking  in  accordance  with  reason,  and  in 
conformity  with  the  law  of  his  Creator. 

It  is  true,  that  many  men  are  born  with  a  predilection 
for  teaching,  and  seem  to  qualify  themselves  for  the  dis- 
charge of  its  duties  with  comparatively  little  study  or 
reflection.  Such  teachers  are  exceptions  to  the  rule;  and 
there  can  be  little  doubt,  that  even  they  would  have  been 
vastly  benefited  by  a  study  of  method  as  applied  to  teach- 
ing. It  is  said  that  Pascal  was  born  a  Geometer,  but  it 
is  very  questionable  whether  we  should  ever  have  heard 
his  name,  had  his  genius  not  been  cultivated  and  de- 
veloped by  a  systematic  course  of  instruction.  So  it  is 
with  education:  the  most  distinguished  teachers  are  to 
be  found  among  those  who  have  shown  a  predilection 
for  the  work,  and  whose  minds  have  been  at  the  same 
time  constantly  directed  to  a  study  of  methods  of  edu- 
cation. 

/  Before  a  man  can  become  a  distinguished  teacher  he 
must  have  a  method :  all  that  he  has  seen,  or  experienced, 
or  read,  relative  to  the  nature  of  the  being  to  be  edu- 
cated, must  have  assumed  the  form  of  a  substantial 
unity — an  idea — an  all-pervading  law  which  connects 
relations  apparently  the  most  dissimilar,  and  gives  one- 
nesp  and   harmony  to  the  most  heterogeneous  mass  of 


HISTORY    OF   METHOD.  21 

facts  and  conditions, — which  constitutes  his  exponent 
of  the  past,  and  the  symbol  of  the  calculus  which  is  to 
enable  him  to  solve  every  problem  which  may  arise  in 
the  future, — which  involves  all  his  past  experience,  and 
out  of  which  he  must  evolve  his  conduct  in  the  future, — 
which  sheds  a  light  over  the  path  that  lies  behind  him, 
and  becomes  the  polar  star  to  guide  him  in  his  voyage 
on  the  dark  and  shoreless  ocean  that  lies  before  him. 
No  language  can  adequately  transmit  that  idea — that 
method — to  other  minds;  for  it  is  in  him  merely  the 
key-note  with  which  is  associated  a  long  train  of  har- 
monious combinations  and  sequences:  it  exists  in  him 
alone,  and  for  him  alone,  and  before  others  can  stand  on 
the  same  vantage  ground  with  him,  they  must  give  the 
same  patient  attention  to  the  philosophy  of  method,  and 
submit  themselves  to  the  same  strict,  process  of  self- 
examination  and  self-development. 

We  repeat  that  no  man  ever  yet  became  a  great  teacher 
until  method  had  become  to  him  a  living  and  substan- 
tial reality.  This  method  may,  and  no  doubt  does,  as- 
sume forms  suited  to  the  intellectual  and  moral  qualities 
of  each  individual,  even  accommodating  itself  to  the 
idiosyncrasy  of  each,  and  the  varying  external  condi- 
tions and  circumstances  of  each;  but  the  grand  features 
of  this  method,  like  the  elements  of  our  physical  and 
moral  constitution,  wull  be  the  same  in  all. 

A  Glance  at  the  History  of  Method. 

Socrates  was  not  a  great  geometer,  but  he  gave  a 
method  of  plilosophy  which  determined  the  character  of 
the  schools  of  antiquity;  and  the  catechetical  form  in 
which  he  gave  his  instruction  has  been  distinguished  by 


22  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

his  name.  Euclid  probably  never  discovered  a  single 
proposition  of  geometry;  but  he  gave  us  the  idea  and 
form  of  a  synthetic  method  which  has  shed  an  effulgence 
of  light  on  the  path  of  philosophy,  and  which  will  en- 
dure as  long  as  there  is  a  human  soul  to  think,  a  science 
to  be  cultivated,  or  a  law  of  nature  to  be  discovered. 
Bacon  made  no  discovery  in  mathematics,  nor  did  he 
add  one  fact  to  our  stock  of  physical  knowledge;  but  he 
effected  a  greater  purpose — he  gave  us  the  method  of 
universal  philosophy:  what  the  one  did  for  a  single  de- 
partment of  abstract  science,  the  other  achieved  for 
universal  knowledge.  Newton  was  a  great  discoverer 
in  every  department  of  mathematical  and  physical  sci- 
ence; but  he  also  gave  us,  in  his  "  Principia,"  the  em- 
bodiment of  a  synthetic  method  of  teaching  mixed 
mathematics  which  will  probably  co-exist  with  the  law 
of  gravitation  itself.  Archimedes  was  also  a  great  dis- 
coverer, but,  in  a  certain  sense,  his  genius  died  with 
him;  he  did  nothing  to  perpetuate  himself,  for  he  had 
no  recognized  method,  and  bequeathed  to  posterity  no 
creative  principle  beyond  the  isolated  facts  and  proposi- 
tions which  he  discovered;  his  mind  was  essentially 
individual,  and  his  contempt  for  concrete  science,  which 
his  mind  was  eminently  qualified  to  adorn,  caused  the 
secret  of  his  power  to  die  with  him. 

But  let  us  consider  the  history  of  method  iin>i\' 
strictly  in  relation  to  primary  education. 

The  ancient  classical  nations  did  nothing  for  primary 
education;  they  established  splendid  schools  of  philos- 
ophy for  their  young  men,  but  left  the  instruction  of 
their  children  to  slaves,  or  neglected  it  altogethei';  and 
during  tlw  ?Mi,)<ll(.  ^o-.w — t],,*  «'|u»c1i  of  cliivilry — (he  only 


HISTORY    OF   METHOD.  23 

school-room  was  the  cell  of  the  monk  or  the  cave  of  the 
anchorite.  And  what  was  the  state  of  education  after 
the  Reformation  ?  From  the  undue  reverence  with 
which  the  works  of  antiquity  w^ere  regarded,  education 
began  with  the  classics,  and  for  the  most  part  ended 
with  them.  Poetry  was  clothed  in  the  garment  of 
heathen  mythology,  and  even  our  philosophy  was  more 
engaged  with  the  history  of  what  was  false  than  with 
the  investigation  of  what  was  true.  Education  became 
a  series  of  tasks — the  memory  was  enthroned  over  all 
the  other  powers  of  the  mind — reason,  invention,  and 
the  principle  of  self-development  were  disregarded;  and 
under  this  unnatural  and  unphilosophical  system,  a  great 
memory  and  a  great  mind  became  almost  synonymous 
terms.  This  method  was  analytic  and  dogmatic,  for  its 
main  element  consisted  in  giving  a  knowledge  of  rules 
and  words  rather  than  things — of  names  rather  than 
positive  ideas.  Although  the  leading  principles  of  pri- 
mary education  are  contained  in  the  great  work  of  the 
father  of  inductive  philosophy,  yet  it  would  appear  that 
their  importance  was  neither  felt  nor  acknowledged  by 
his  immediate  followers. 

Such  w^as  the  state  of  education  throughout  Europe 
when  Locke  began  to  write.  This  distinguished  philos- 
ophher  considered  that  the  chief  business  of  primary 
education  is  to  develop  the  faculties  of  the  child;  that, 
as  the  first  ideas  of  children  are  derived  from  sensation, 
so  the  perceptive  faculties  should  be  the  first  cultivated 
or  develo[)ed;  and  that  verbal  memory  is  almost  the 
only  intellectual  power  which  does  not  admit  of  being 
improved  by  education.  Locke's  method  of  education 
was  a  corollary  to  his  metaphysical  philosphy.     It  was 


24  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

synthetic  and  demonstrative — its  main  element  being 
the  development  of  the  intellectual  powers  and  moral 
feelings  through  the  instrumentality  of  things  or  sub- 
jects which  might  be  known  and  understood  by  the 
child.  The  method  of  Loclce  soon  became  recognized 
throughout  Europe  and  America.  The  author  of 
"  Emile,"  in  France,  became  its  most  enlightened  and 
most  eloquent  expositor:  and  Pestalozzi,  in  Germany, 
carried  it  into  practice,  followed  it  out  in  all  its  details, 
and  gave  the  spiritual  essence  a  substantial  form — "  a 
local  habitation  and  a  name."  But  in  the  fatherland  of 
the  great  metaphysician,  his  method  remained  for  more 
than  a  century  a  dead  letter, — and  even  till  very  re- 
cently the  methods  which  he  exposed  and  denounced 
held  an  undisputed  dominion  in  the  education  of  the 
people  in  this  country.  But  we  have  accepted  from  the 
hand  of  the  pupil  what  we  would  not  receive  from  the 
hand  of  the  master;  and  we  have  unwittingly  become 
the  followers  of  Pestalozzi,  when  we  might  have  been 
the  disciples  of  our  own  immortal  Locke.  But  why 
speak  of  the  country  of  Locke?  Great  men  have  no 
country — they  belong  to  humanity. 

To  descend  to  more  matter-of-fact,  but  not  less 
instructive  forms  of  method:  Joseph  Lancaster  and  Dr. 
Bell  contributed  to  the  development  of  method  as  ap- 
plied to  primary  education,  when  they  established  the 
monotorial  system.  No  doubt  it  had  long  been  observed, 
that  the  older  boys  might,  under  certain  circumstances, 
be  advantageously  employed  to  teach  the  younger  ones; 
but  the  idea  of  organizing  such  a  plan,  so  as  to  make  it 
applicable  to  our  common  national  schools,  belongs  to 
these  men.     The  errors  and  defects  of  this  system  are 


HISTORY    OF   METHOD.  26 

apparent: — its  efficiency  is  suVjsidiary  to,  and  de- 
pendent upon,  more  comprehensive  views  of  method; 
it  ignores  the  education  of  the  master  as  well  as  that  of 
the  monitors;  and  necessity  rather  than  choice  leads  to 
the  adoption  of  these  monitors,  whose  temporary  func- 
tions, imposed  upon  them  by  their  master,  are  relin- 
quished at  a  time  when  their  skill  is  beginning  to  be  useful. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  defects  of  this  system,  it 
contained  an  idea  which  obviously  suggested  the  adop- 
tion of  the  apprenticeship  system,  or  the  system  of  pupil 
teachers.  The  monitorial  system  was  a  measure  of 
economy,  adopted  to  mitigate  an  existing  evil — to  give 
the  best  education  to  the  greatest  number  of  children  at 
the  least  possible  cost.  At  best  it  could  be  regarded 
only  as  preliminary  to  some  more  complete  system. 
Now,  while  the  apprenticeship  system  embodies  this 
principle  of  economy,  it  recognizes  at  the  same  time  an 
important  principle  in  the  philosophy  of  method,  viz., 
that  the  art  of  teaching,  like  other  arts,  can  only  be  ac- 
quired by  practice  and  an  early  attention  to  the  most 
approved  forms  of  communicating  our  ideas  to  others. 
In  order  that  a  man  may  become  a  joiner,  or  any  other 
kind  of  mechanic,  he  is  apprenticed,  at  an  early  age,  to 
a  man  who  is  master  of  that  particular  art;  so,  in  order 
that  a  man  may  become  a  teacher,  he  should  be  appren- 
ticed, at  an  early  age,  to  a  schoolmaster  who  is  thor- 
oughly master  of  his  work.  This  apprenticeship  system, 
taken  in  connection  with  the  system  of  inspection,  and 
the  establishment  of  training  colleges  for  schoolmasters, 
must  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  measure  which  has 
ever  been  proposed  for  the  education  of  a  people.  In 
these  schemes  we  observe  the  recognition  of  the  import- 


26  PEIILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

ance  of  method.  Universities  may  make  scliolars, 
divines,  and  philosophers;  but  they  cannot  train  school- 
masters. It  is  the  peculiar  province  of  the  professors  of 
our  training  colleges  to  effect  this,  by  expounding  the 
principles  of  education  in  relation  to  methods  of  teach- 
ing,— by  showing  the  application  of  these  meihods  in 
the  actual  management  of  a  school, — and  by  communi- 
cating that  kind  of  knowledge  which  is  best  calculated 
to  render  the  teacher  useful  in  his  profession.  When 
the  Committee  of  Council  on  Education  published  their 
Minutes  of  1846,  they  virtually  announced  to  the  world 
that  there  was  method  in  education,  and  that  no  man 
could  become  a  truly  useful  teacher  without  a  knowl- 
edge of  tliat  method.  Acts  of  Parliament,  or  legislative 
engines,  cannot  of  themselves  make  men  virtuous  aiid 
religious;  but  it  is  legitimately  within  the  range  of  their 
power  to  decree  that  Ignorance,  which  is  the  most  fruit- 
ful source  of  vice  and  irreligion,  shall  exist  no  longer. 

This  government  system  of  education  is  not  in  all 
resj)ects  what  the  practical  educator  could  wish;  but  we 
may  hope  that  experience,  aided  by  a  careful  induction 
of  facts,  will  in  time  correct  what  is  wrong  and  improve 
what  is  defective. 

Jean  Paul  Richter  asks — "  What  have  the  political 
vowels  of  Europe — the  English — done  for  clucation  ?  " 
We  answer,  almost  everything  !  Our  great  meta[)hy- 
sicians  first  gave  the  true  philosophy  of  method;  we  first 
adopted  the  monitorial  and  infant-school  systems;  and 
although  we  have  been  slow  to  combhie  and  improve  all 
that  we  have  discovered,  we  have  at  length  organized  a 
system  of  national  education  which  bids  fair  to  become 
the  most  efficient  that  has  ever  been  proposed. 


its  presjent  condition  and  future  progress.      27 

Present  Condition  and  Future  Progress  of 
Education. 

In  taking  a  view  of  the  state  of  education  in  this 
country,  we  have  much  to  congratulate  ourselves  upon. 
We  have  been  silently  progressing;  methods  of  educa- 
tion have  been  improving  step  by  step;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  we  must  confess  that  we  have  not  yet  arrived  at 
the  ne  plus  ultra.  Still  much  lies  before  us  to  be  ejffected. 
Many  educational  prejudices  want  to  be  swept  away, 
and  many  new  principles  require  to  be  introduced.  Not- 
withstanding, we  ought  to  feel  gratified,  and  to  con- 
gratulate ourselves  upon  what  has  been  done,  as  it 
gives  us  the  hope  that  something  more  will  yet  be  done. 
We  live  in  an  age  of  progress:  no  branch  of  human 
knowledge  but  is  advancing — ay,  with  an  accelerated 
motion.  In  our  own  times  new  sciences  have  been 
created,  and  new  departments  of  art  have  been  brought 
to  bear  on  all  conditions  of  society.  The  mighty  power 
of  steam  has  been  developed  in  our  own  time.  Every- 
thing around  us  has  been  advancing;  and  education 
should  advance  with  the  advancement  of  society. 

Educators  may  be  divided  into  two  classes.  There  is 
the  conservative  educator,  and  there  is  the  educational 
reformer.  The  conservative  educator,  like  the  con- 
servative politician,  would  wish  everything  to  remain 
as  it  is  and  as  it  has  been.  The  education  of  fifty  years 
past  ought  to  be  the  education  of  the  present  period. 
Things  liave  gone  on  well  enough  in  the  past,  and 
why  should  they  not  do  the  same  in  the  future  ?  Such 
is  the  view  of  these  educational  oonservatiyes.  They 
may  yield  a  little  to  the  pressure  of  public  opinion;  but 


28  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

still  the  principle  remains  unchanged  in  their  hearts. 
They  may  admit,  when  they  are  compelled  to  express 
themselves,  that  the  education  of  the  people  will  not 
tend  to  the  subversion  of  government,  and  in  such  things 
as  that  they  will  go  along  with  you;  but  still  in  their 
hearts  they  are  conservative  in  relation  to  the  advance- 
ment of  education.  The  other  class,  the  educational  re- 
formers, advocate  utility  and  progress.  They  would 
not  only  have  us  improve  our  educational  methods,  but 
they  would  have  more  of  the  principle  of  utility  intro- 
duced into  our  schools.  They  would  not  have  the  boys 
in  our  national  schools  taught  things  that  are  merely 
curious,  or  things  merely  to  gratify  the  prejudices  of 
particular  individuals;  but  they  would  have  them  taught 
those  things  that  will  bear  upon  the  future  pursuits  of 
life.  We  have  not  yet  attained  to  that.  We  still,  in 
many  of  our  schools,  go  on  with  the  old  routine — read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  with  the  addition,  ad  libitum^  of 
catechisms  and  formularies.  Day  after  day  the  same 
dull  routine  goes  on.  Oh  !  how  the  monotony  of  the 
dull  routine  deadens  the  faculties  of  the  children,  and 
not  only  of  the  children,  but  of  the  educator  !  It  is  a 
well-known  fact,  from  the  statistics  of  insanity,  that 
in  those  countries  where  the  pursuits  of  men  are  most 
monotonous,  there  we  find  the  greatest  prevalence  of 
insanity.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  it  is  the  monotony 
of  the  pursuits  that  produces  the  insanity;  and  we  cannot 
wonder  that  the  intellectual  faculties  of  such  school- 
masters should  retrograde,  instead  of  advance,  nor  can 
we  wonder  that  the  children,  constituted  as  they  are  by 
their  good  and  great  Creator  with  faculties  which  lead 
thera  to  seek  after  a  knowledge  of  the  properties  and 


THE    BAC0N1A.N   PHILOSOPHY.  29 

uses  of  the  various  objects  in  the  world  around  them, 
should  be  uninterested  in  the  dull  routine  in  which  they 
are  engaged. 

The  Baconian  Philosophy  considered  in  relation  to  the  Progress 
of  Modern  Education.  Utility  and  Progress  should  charac- 
terize all  our  Methods  and  Systems  of  Education. 

Bacon  was  one  of  the  most  enlightened  educators  that 
ever  appeared  on  the  earth, — for  his  philosophy  was  as 
fully  applicable  to  the  advancement  of  education  as  to 
the  development  of  the  experimental  sciences. 

The  spirit  of  the  Baconian  philosophy  may  be  charac- 
terized by  two  words, — utility  and  progbess.  The 
ancient  philosophy  was  stationary,  because  it  disdained 
to  be  useful:  It  propounded  imposing  abstract  theories 
which  had  little  or  no  bearing  upon  the  actual  condition 
of  man  in  society: — It  took  its  aim  at  the  stars,  and 
therefore  hit  nothing: — It  speculated  about  virtue  and 
happiness,  but  added  nothing  to  the  comforts  or  enjoy- 
ments of  human  existence: — It  professed  to  reform  and 
enlighten  the  world,  but  left  it  as  dark  and  degraded  as 
it  ever  had  been: — It  was  a  sort  of  intellectual  gym- 
nasium, in  which  the  faculties  were  exercised;  but  this 
intellectual  action  yielded  no  work — no  fruit — as  regards 
the  progress  of  society;  the  mind  revolved  in  a  circle  of 
speculative  theories,  the  starting  point  of  to-day  became 
the  goal  of  to-morrow, — there  was  motion,  but  no  pro- 
gress. The  command  given  by  this  philosophy  was, 
"  Mark  time  ! "  and  thus,  for  two  thousand  years,  the 
human  intellect  continued  to  mark  time.  The  father  of 
the  inductive  philosophy  gave  the  command,  "Advance! " 
and  society,  obedient  to  this  command,  has  multiplied  a 


30  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

thousandfold  its  resources  of  enjoyment  and  happiness. 
This  philoso[)hy  was  practical — it  attempted  nothing 
wliich  could  not  be  accomplished, — it  aimed  at  a  plain, 
tangible  mark,  and  hit  it.  It  sought  to  improve  the 
sciences  by  advancing  the  arts.  It  took  the  common- 
sense  method  of  induction,  which  had  from  time  imme- 
morial been  successfully  followed  by  the  artisan,  as  the 
great  instrument  for  advancing  philosophy.  Its  object 
was  UTILITY,  and  its  end  progress. 

It  is  not  generally  known  or  generally  acknowledged 
that  Bacon's  philosophy,  as  an  inductive  philosophy,  wa« 
really  derived  from  the  workshop.  The  inductive  prin- 
ciple had  been  practised  for  ages  by  the  workman  in  his 
various  processes  of  art.  This  was  thought  unworthy 
of  attention  by  the  philosopher  of  the  platonic  schools; 
but  Bacon  saw  that  under  this  inductive  principle  the 
arts  had  advanced,  while  the  sciences,  then  so  called, 
had  remained  stationary;  and  his  own  strong  common 
sense  showed  him  that  the  principle  which  advanced  the 
arts  might  also  advance  universal  science. 

Let  us  inquire,  How  does  this  philosophy  apply  to 
modern  education  ? 

According  to  the  Baconian  philosophy,  utility  and 
progress  should  characterize  all  our  methods  of  educa- 
tion. To  secure  progress,  we  should  aim  at  what  is 
practicable  and  useful.  Until  within  the  last  twenty 
years,  the  platonic  philosophy  infested  all  our  systems 
of  education.  The  inductive  philosophy,  which  created 
new  sciences,  and  infused  fresh  vitality  into  the  old 
ones,  left  our  educational  systems  as  it  found  them,  all 
but  worthless  as  regards  the  education  of  the  people  of 
a  great  cojnmercial,  scientific,  manufacturing,  and  en- 


THE   BACONIAN   PHILOSOPHY.  31 

gineering  nation.  In  our  middle  and  higher  class  schools,  \ 
the  languages  of  the  ancients,  the  logic  of  the  ancients,  > 
and  the  geometry  of  the  ancients  formed  the  great  sub- 
jects of -school  instruction;  whilst  practical  science, 
general  knowledge,  and  nearly  all  those  subjects  which 
bear  directly  upon  the  interests  of  man  as  an  active  and 
thinking  agent,  were  virtually  ignored.  This  system 
even  failed  to  accomplish  the  contracted  end  which  it 
had  in  view.  It  professed  to  exercise  and  strengthen 
the  intellectual  faculties;  but  the  only  faculty  which  it 
could  strengthen,  admitting  that  to  be  possible,  was 
memory.  To  remember,  recite,  and  admire  what  the 
ancients  had  done,  was  the  highest  end  which  it  pro- 
posed. It  therefore  produced  a  race  of  slavish  imitators, 
and  not  a  race  of  original,  vigorous,  and  practical  think- 
ers. Facts,  and  the  induction  of  facts,  were  deemed 
unworthy  of  their  platonic  philosophy. 

Now  Bacon  had  taught,  in  his  philosophy,  that  the 
powers  of  memory  can  do  little  towards  the  advance- 
ment of  science.  He  ranks  the  achievements  of  memory 
with  the  exhibitions  of  the  mountebank:  "The  two  per- 
formances are  of  much  the  same  sort.  The  one  is  an 
abuse  of  the  powers  of  the  body;  the  other  is  an  abuse 
of  the  powers  of  the  mind.  Both  may  excite  our  won- 
der; but  neither  is  entitled  to  our  respect."  Locke,  the 
great  metaphysician,  also  advocated  the  same  view  at  a 
subsequent  period. 

Even  geometry  was  considered  to  suffer  a  degradation 
whenever  its  abstract  demonstrations  were  combined 
with  more  simple  modes  of  exposition,  or  whenever  it 
was  applied  to  the  business  of  life, — its  essential  and 
eternal  truths  were  vitiated  by  the  association.     This 


32  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

opinion  obtains  very  largely  amongst  a  certain  class  of 
educators,  even  at  the  present  day.  "Take  care;  do 
not  simplify  your  geometry;  do  not  attempt  to  give 
your  children  any  common-sense  definitions  of  geo- 
metrical truths,  otherwise  you  will  vitiate  the  eternal, 
immutable  truths  of  geometry.  You  must  begin  with 
Euclid,  and  you  must  end  with  Euclid."  Men  that 
speak  loudly  in  praise  of  Bacon  as  the  father  of  modern 
philosophy,  will  never  tell  you  about  this, — that  he 
exposed  the  systems  of  education  which  they  are  now 
employing  in  the  education  of  the  people  of  this  country. 

Now  Bacon  taught  that  geometry,  as  well  as  all  the 
other  branches  of  mathematics,  was  valuable  as  a  branch 
of  education  only  so  far  as  it  contributed  to  supply  the 
wants  of  society;  and  that  such  practical  applications, 
so  far  from  detracting  from  the  discipline  which  it  gave 
the  mind,  in  reality  made  that  discipline  more  forcible 
and  complete.  He  viewed  mathematics  as  an  instrument 
for  the  extension  of  art  and  science,  and  considered  that 
it  should  be  studied,  not  as  an  end,  but  as  a  means  to  an 
end,  without  which  the  study  would  be,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure, fruitless. 

In  short,  like  the  platonic  philosophy,  the  aim  of  the 
education  of  these  schools  was  to  raise  man  above  the 
influence  of  vulgar  wants. 

The  principle  of  utility  and  })rogre8s  would  lead  us  to 
conclude  that  the  education  of  the  boy  should  fit  and 
prepare  him  for  discharging  the  duties  of  the  man.  But 
what  did  the  collegiate-trained,  aristocratic  teacher  care 
for  the  duties  and  interests  of  the  carpenter,  the  wheel- 
wright, the  engine-V>uilder,  or  the  scientific  experiment- 
alist ?    Their  pursuits  were   altogether   foreign   to  his 


THE   BACONIA.N   PHILOSOPHY.  33 

education  and  association;  of  their  habits  of  thought  he 
knew  nothing,  and  cared  as  little;  between  him  and 
them  there  was  an  impassable  gulf  ;  he  lived  in  a  quies- 
cent world  of  abstractions;  they  lived  in  a  world  of 
action  and  progress.  How  could  the  one  become  the 
educator  of  the  other  ? 

These  remarks,  made  in  reference  to  the  middle  and 
higher  class  schools,  will  apply,  with  only  a  slight  mod- 
ification, to  the  primary  schools  of  the  corresponding 
period. 

Interest  quickens  man's  perceptions  and  invigorates 
his  intellectual  powers.  The  artisan  works  out  his 
results  chiefly  by  inductive  processes  of  reasoning,because 
he  finds  the  highest  degree  of  certainty,  and  a  sufficient 
degree  of  exactness  in  the  method,  and  performs  his 
inductions  well  and  carefully,  for  his  interest  depends 
upon  his  deductions.  Hence  it  was,  that  whilst  phi- 
losophy remained  stationary,  the  arts  went  on  pro- 
gressing. Bacon  observed  this,  and  therefore  recom- 
mended the  inductive  process  for  the  advancement  of 
philosophy.  What  the  artisans  had  performed  success- 
fully on  a  limited  scale,  he  proposed  to  employ  in  the 
advancement  of  universal  science.  Thus  Bacon's  phi- 
losophy was  harrowed  from  the  worhhop;  and  what  he  did 
for  science,  we  may  now  do  for  education;  we  must  har- 
row from  the  workshop  by  adopting  in  our  schools,  more 
or  less,  those  processes  of  reasoning,  habits  of  thought, 
and  peculiar  modes  of  self-instruction,  employed  by  our 
practical  men. 

If  the  great  intellect  of  Bacon  could  condescend  to 
borrow  from  the  workshop,  why  should  we  be  ashamed 
of  borrowing  from  the  same  source  ?    But  yet  so  it  is. 

B 


34  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

Talk  to  some  of  our  professional  men — it  may  be  our 
lawyers,  or  our  clergymen — about  borrowing  ideas,  and 
taking  hints  from  the  working  man,  they  would  smile  at 
you  with  contempt,  and  say,  "  Can  men  who  have  had  a 
college  education  obtain  any  information  from  persons 
of  the  lowly  class,  whose  education  has  been  altogether 
neglected?"  Ay,  neglected,  to  be  sure;  neglected  so 
far  as  the  schools  in  which  these  men  had  been  placed 
in  their  childhood  are  considered;  but  those  workmen, 
when  they  left  the  schools,  had  to  commence  a  course 
of  self-education;  and  that  self-education  has  had  its 
results;  that  self -education  makes  the  English  workman 
what  he  is, — the  piide  of  his  country,  the  most  skilful 
artisan  of  the  world. 

Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  done  for  primary 
education  within  the  last  twenty  years,  we  are  still  very 
far  from  having  realized  the  Baconian  condition  of 
utility  and  progress. 

We  are  still  under  the  dominion  of  abstract  theories  of 
education  consecrated  by  great  names,  and  sanctioned 
and  patronized  by  great  societies.  That  philosophy  is 
false,  and  not  less  hateful  than  it  is  false,  which  arrests 
the  progress  of  knowledge  by  extinguishing  the  spirit  of 
inquiry  and  destroying  freedom  of  thought  and  action. 
The  platonic  philosophy  enslaved  the  human  mind  for 
two  thousand  years,  and  during  that  long  period  it  pro- 
duced no  fruit,  because  it  superseded  inductive  processes 
of  inquiry  by  laying  down  theoretic  dogmas  and  sublime 
philosophic  fictions.  Bacon  emancipated  the  human 
mind  from  this  degrading  and  enfeebling  slavery.  He 
showed  mankind  that  the  inductive  method  would  lead 
them  to  new  truths,  far  exceeding  in  brilliancy  and  util- 


THE    BACONIAN   PHILOSOPHY.  35 

ity  anything  which  the  ancient  gods  of  philosophy, 
whom  the  people  had  blindly  worshiped,  had  ever  dis- 
covered. It  is  not  necessary  to  say  how"  wonderfully 
this  prediction  has  been  fulfilled.  Thus  our  platonic 
theories  of  education  must  one  day  fall  before  the  induc- 
tive method  of  inquiry. 

In  moral  questions  there  is,  perhaps,  no  such  thing  as 
absolute  certainty.  A  question  in  education  cannot  be 
solved  in  the  same  manner  as  a  problem  in  geometry. 
Moral  evidence  has  little  in  common  with  mathematical 
evidence;  and  the  inductive  method  of  research  is  in 
many  respects  widely  different  from  the  analytic  method, 
by  which  we  demonstrate  abstract  truths.  In  the  induc- 
tive sciences,  such  as  education,  we  seem  only  to  approx- 
imate to  truth.  We  can  hardly  ever  say  that  we  have 
actually  arrived  at  the  absolute  truth;  but  we  approach 
nearer  and  nearer  to  it,  according  as  we  extend  our 
inductive  processes.  The  truth  lies  in  the  asymptote  of 
a  curve,  towards  which  we  are  always  approaching,  but 
which  we  may  never  absolutely  reach.  At  the  same 
time  our  approximations  have  always  the  stamp  of  util- 
ity, for  they  are  practically  true;  that  is,  they  are  true  as 
far  as  the  actual  wants  of  society  are  concerned,  The 
inductive  method  never  puts  a  stop  to  further  inquiry; 
it  is  itself  progressive,  and  recognizes  the  principle  of 
progress.  It  gives  no  divine  revelation;  on  the  contrary, 
it  appeals  to  reason,  and  challenges  further  inquiry. 
Watt  concluded,  from  his  experiments,  that  the  sum  of 
the  latent  and  sensible  heat  of  steam  was  a  constant 
quantity:  this,  although  not  found  by  subsequent  exper- 
imentalists to  be  strictly  true,  was  nevertheless  a  grand 
approximation  to  truth,  which  conducted  him  to  those 


36                              PHILOSOPHY   OF   EDUCATION.  j 

magnificent   inventions   which    have  changed  the  des- 
tinies of  the  world.     The  same  spirit  should  be  adopted 

in  relation  to  the  development  of  our  methods  of  edu-  ^ 

cation.  i 

The  inductive  method  has  already  done  something  for 

the  progress  of  education,  but  its  importance  is  not  yet  i 

sufficiently  acknowledged  or  understood.       We  are  still  J  j 

the  slaves  of  conventional  forms  and  prescriptive  theo-  L  j 

ries;  we  are  still  too  much  overawed  and  cowed  into  ser-  /   | 

vility  by  high-sounding  names,  and  by  the  dogmas  of  | 

self-serving  professions  and    ambitious   societies.     The  | 
progress  which  we  have  made  should  be  taken  as  the 

guarantee  of  further   advancement.     The  positions  we  j 

have  gained  must  form  the  base  of  operations  for  still  * 
greater  achievements. 

When  I  was  a  boy,  geography  was  taught  by  rote; 

now  it  is  taught  much  more  efficiently  by  means  of  maps.  j 

Arithmetic  was  imperfectly  taught  by  rules;  now  it  is  ■ 
admirably  taught  by  an  exposition  of  principles;    but 

there  are  still  many  important  branches  of  knowledge  ] 

very  imperfectly  taught  by  the  rule  and  rote  system.  j 

We  must  not  abandon  the  hope  of  future ^oyr^w.    With  I 

respect  to  utility^  there  is  much  which  remains  to  be  ac-  \  i 

complished.       We  want  a  greater  enlargement  of  the  f  \ 

basis  of  intellectual  and  moral  development,  suited  to  the  f  j 

advanced  state  of  our  arts  and  sciences.     The  rich  stores  ^  \ 
of  scientific  knowledge,  which  we  now  possess,  should 

be  more  thoroughly  and  systematically  taught  in  our  ; 
schools,  not  only  as  a  means  of  intellectual  and  moral 
culture,  but  also  on  account  of  their  immediate  bearing 
on  the  business  of  life. 

Let  us  enter  an  elementary  school  in  one  of  our  manu-  I 


A   PROVINCIAL   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL.  37 

facturiiig  cities.  The  master  still  teaches  on  the  old 
individual  system.  There  is  no  blackboard,  or  any  kind 
of  experimental  apparatus.  There  are  maps,  it  is  true, 
hanging  on  the  walls,  but  they  seem  to  have  been  little 
used,  for  they  are  covered  with  dust.  The  school  is  not 
noisy,  but  there  is  the  constant  chatter  and  titter  of 
idleness  and  frolic.  There  is  discipline  of  a  certain 
kind,  but  it  is  not  moral  discipline.  The  boys  are  sons 
of  mechanics  and  factory  laborers,  and,  like  their  par- 
ents, they  will  have  to  enter  the  workshop  or  the  fac- 
tory. They  are  sharp,  intelligent-looking  boys,  and  seem 
capable  of  learning  anything  wliich  the  schoolmaster 
might  attempt  to  teach  them,  or  of  taking  advantage  of 
his  occasional  fits  of  listlessness  and  abstraction;  but 
they  are  idle,  and  feel  no  interest  in  their  tasks.  The 
dull  routine  of  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic,  with 
catechisms  and  formularies,  goes  on  day  after  day.  The 
school  is  characterized  neither  by  utility  nor  by  progress. 
The  master  sits  at  his  desk,  apparently  in  a  deep  "  brown 
study;"  let  us  look  over  his  shoulder  and  see  what  he 
is  doing.  He  is  studying  the  ancient  geometry,  and  on 
one  side  of  his  desk  are  some  books  of  the  ancient  clas- 
sical authors.  He  is  a  scholar  and  a  mathematician. 
What  a  misdirection  of  intellect !  What  fruit  has  his 
knowledge  yielded  him  ?  or  what  advantage  has  it  been 
to  the  pupils  of  his  school?  It  has  been  a  negation;  or 
rather,  it  has  been  worse  than  a  negation.  These  boys 
want  to  be  taught  in  matters  relating  to  the  employments 
which  they  will  soon  have  to  follow.  The  master  is  idle, 
as  a  teacher,  because  the  boys  will  not  attend  to  his 
abstract  prelections;  and  the  boys  are  idle  because  the 
master  will  not  instruct  them  in  those  things  which  form 


38  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION.  : 

the  subjects  of  their  every-day  associations.     The  school-  ! 
house  is  surrounded  by  engines,  by  factories,  by  chemical 
works,  and  by  workshops  of  all  sorts.     What  a  mine  of 

intellectual    wealth  lies  at  his  very  door  available  for  ; 

school  instruction  !    How  useful  he  might  become  !    He  ; 

might  fill  these  hives  of  industry  with  a  far  more  in-  | 

telligent  and  skilful  class  of  operatives,  and  thereby  not  ' 

only  advance  the  interests  of  the  operatives  themselves,  ? 

but  contribute  to  the  productive  resources  of  his  country.  ! 

Hark  !  the  steam  whistle  !     He  starts  as  a  man  aroused  I 

from  his  slumber.     Does  that  sound  awaken  some  useful  ; 

trains  of  association  ?    The  steam-engine,  with  its  huge  i 

train  of  cars,  passengers,  and  merchandise,  starts  on  its  j 

winged  course.     It  goes  onward  and   onward,  and   woe  ; 

betide  the  thing  that  obstructs  its  progress.    It  rolls  from  i 

hamlet  to  hamlet,  and  from  city  to  city,  carrying  with  it  i 
the  products  of  industry  and  intelligence.     Type  of  the 

age  of  progress  !  has  the  shrill  blast  of  thy  whistle  re-  i 
minded  the  schoolmaster  that  utility  and  progress  are 

realities  demanding  his  consideration,  and  claiming  the  ! 

tribute  of  his  powers  ?    Poor  dreamer  !  have  you  really  i 

returned  to  your  problems  ?     Are  you  content  to  remain  i 
stationary,  whilst  everything  around  you  reminds  you 

that  utility  and  progress  are  the  motive  principles  of  the  i 

age;  and  that  beings  such  as  you,  with  all  your  classical  i 

lore,  must  be  swept  away  as  the  surf  of  the  ocean  before  I 

the  advancing  tide  of  civilization  ?  | 

Philosophy  of  Method.  I 

Having  arrived  at  an  educational  epoch  in  which  the  | 

importance  of  teaching,  as  well  as  of  tlie  method   of  ■ 

teaching,  is  duly  recognized,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  in-  ■ 


PHILOSOPHY    OF    METHOD.  39 

quiry,  How  are  we  to  distinguish  the  true  from  the 
false?  Amid  such  an  accumulation  of  facts,  methods, 
and  systems,  what  are  the  evils  arising  out  of  the  abuse 
of  method,  and  by  what  principles  of  philosophy  are  our 
systeius  to  be  tested  and  improved  ?  In  short,  what  are 
the  laws  which  govern  the  philosophy  of  method  ? 

Education,  like  all  other  sciences,  must  be  based  upon 
a  careful  induction  of  facts.  All  true  ideas  of  method 
must  be  derived  from  a  careful  study  of  the  nature  of 
the  human  faculties,  as  regards  the  mode  as  well  as  the 
order  of  their  development.  It  is,  therefore,  the  first 
business  of  the  science  of  method  to  discover  the  laws 
and  conditions  which  regulate  the  development  of  the 
mind, — to  follow  Nature  wheresoever  she  may  lead  us, 
and  not  to  lay  down  preconceived  rules  for  her  guid- 
ance. Our  attempts  to  teach  by  abstract  notions, 
formed  independently  of  a  careful  study  of  facts,  are  as 
ridiculous  as  the  conduct  of  the  savage  who  sowed  gun- 
powder, instead  of  trying  to  make  it.  It  is  true,  that  in 
the  progress  of  all  science  there  must  be  an  initiative 
idea,  but  then  this  idea  must  be  tested  and  perfected  by 
an  appeal  to  experience  and  experiment.  When  the 
ancient  astronomers  affirmed  that  the  orbits  of  the 
planets  were  circular,  because  the  circle  was  the  most 
perfect  figure,  they  committed  a  great  error  in  philoso- 
phy, for  the  true  proof  of  their  initiative  conception 
should  have  been  sought  for  in  nature,  and  not  in  any 
abstract  principle.  So,  in  like  manner,  all  our  theories, 
or  general  principles  of  teaching  should  be  tested  by  an 
appeal  to  facts  of  observation  and  experiment.  The 
relative  efficiency  of  different  systems  should  be  deter- 
mined, by  placing  them   under  the  same  circumstances 


40  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

and  relations,  and  then,  by  a  careful  induction  of  facts, 
we  should  establish  some  general  principles  of  method. 
The  certainty  of  our  conclusions,  in  such  cases,  depends 
upon  two  circumstances; — first,  on  the  facilities  which 
we  have  for  tracing  effects  to  their  causes,  and  con- 
versely for  following  causes  to  their  legitimate  effects, 
— second,  on  the  faith  which  we  have  in  the  constancy 
and  uniformity  with  which  the  same  relations  and  con- 
ditions occur.  Thus,  for  example,  the  phenomena  of 
the  material  world  are  always  open  to  observation  and 
experiment;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  pei-fect  uniform- 
ity with  which  they  take  place,  leads  iis  to  speak  with 
confidence  of  the  future,  from  what  has  taken  place  in 
the  past.  A  chemist,  after  having  determined  the  par- 
ticular action  of  one  substance  upon  another,  from  bis 
instinctive  belief  in  the  permanence  of  the  laws  of 
nature,  at  once  decides  that  the  same  action  will  always 
take  place  under  the  same  circumstances;  but  experience 
alone  must  lead  him  to  find  out  what  are  the  essential 
circumstances  and  relations  for  producing  the  particular 
action,  and  what  are  merely  casual  or  accidental;  in 
short,  experience,  or  repeated  experiment,  must  lead 
him  to  discover  the  true  relation  of  uriiform  sequence — 
the  relation  of  cause  and  effect. 

Let  us  penetrate  a  little  further  into  the  recesses  of 
this  subject.  Facts  are  the  point  of  departure  of  all 
philosophy;  these  become  matters  of  consciousness;  ob- 
servation there  lays  hold  of  them  before  committing 
them  to  induction,  which  forces  them  to  yield  iq^  the 
principles  which  they  contain.  The  method  of  observa- 
tion and  induction  was  first  given  by  Bacon,  but  it  has 
become  the  spirit  of  the  age, — the  spirit  of  the  world  of 


1»HIL0S0PHY   OP   METHOD.  41 

civilisation  and  development.  It  constitutes  the  unity 
of  the  age  characterized  by  the  most  striking  diversities 
and  antagonisms.  Philosophy  has  its  origin  in  observa- 
tion and  experience  only;  to  be  so  limited  is  to  be  lim- 
ited to  human  nature;  but  what  else  could  we  have,  or 
would  we  have  ?  The  experimental  philosophy  of  Bacon 
(characterized  by  observation,  experience,  and  experi- 
ment) is  sufficient  for  the  attainment  of  all  knowledge, 
and  for  the  completion  of  every  science.  It  has  passed 
sentence  on  the  ancient  systems  of  philosophy, — it  has 
destroyed  all  that  was  merely  hypothetical,  but  it  has 
perpetuated  all  that  was  based  on  observation.  A  single 
fact  not  unfrequently  consecrates  a  mass  of  errors,  and 
sometimes  gives  to  the  wildest  theories  a  certain  amount 
of  credit  among  men.  Everything  true  and  permanent 
in  the  systems  of  philosophy,  scattered  throughout  the 
course  of  time,  is  the  fruit  of  observation;  and  every- 
thing permanently  useful  in  society  is  the  result  of  the 
experimental  method.  To  arrive  at  a  permanent  system 
we  must  not  only  observe,  but  we  must  observe  every- 
thing faithfully,  truly,  and  completely,  without  preju- 
dice and  partiality.  We  must  use  only  the  method  of 
observation,  but  we  must  apply  it  to  all  facts,  wherever 
they  exist;  on  its  impartiality  depends  its  accuracy,  and  ' 
to  be  impartial  it  must  be  universal.  Method,  as  applied 
to  education,  is  a  mixed  inquiry,  comprehending  ques- 
tions of  physics  as  well  as  metaphysics;  and  a  compre- 
hensive method  of  observation  is  necessary  to  establish 
the  desiderated  alliance  between  the  two  classes  of  phe- 
nomena, not  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  one  to  the  other,  but 
by  the  unity  of  the  method  employed  in  ascertaining  the 
law  connecting  the  phenomena,  which,  though  different 


42  PHILOSOPHY   OF   EDUCATION. 

as  to  kind,  are  nevertheless  coexistent  and  inseparable 
as  to  results.  When  observation  has  put  us  in  posses- 
sion of  nil  the  elements  of  our  science,  we  then  proceed 
with  the  work  of  classificalion,  generalization,  etc. 

In  order  to  fulfil  these  conditions,  the  principles  of 
method^  as  applied  to  education,  must  be  considered  sub- 
jectively as  well  as  objectively;  that  is  to  say,  in 
relation  to  the  me,  as  well  as  in  relation  to  the  not  me. 
The  science  of  the  me  is  called  Psychology;  it  gives  the 
history  of  the  soul  as  derived  from  consciousness 
and  reflection;  it  is,  therefore,  entirely  occupied  with 
internal  facts  and  phenomena.  The  objective  is  our 
intellectual  principles  considered  in  relation  to  their  ex- 
ternal objects.  Here  we  must  observe  how  the  minds  of 
children  develop  themselves;  and  also,  how  the  mind  of 
man,  regarded  historically,  or  in  connection  with  the 
progress  of  society,  has  developed  itself. 

All  questions  relating  to  methods  of , instruction  are 
contained  in  the  three  following: — 

1.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  actual,  or  the 
developed  intelligence  ? 

2.  What  are  their  jsrmeWt;* characteristics? 

3.  What  are  the  intermediate  conditions,  or  occasions, 
connecting  the  actual  with  the  primitive;  or,  in  other 
words,  how  is  intelligence  developed  ? 

The  first  two  questions  are  almost  exclusively  sub- 
jective; the  last  is  objective  as  well  as  subjective. 

Here  we  start  with  the  actual  state  of  the  faculties, 
and  arrive  at  their  primitive  state  by  following  the  in- 
termediate links  connecting  the  one  with  the  other.  To 
determine  the  actual,  is  the  easiest  problem,  and  its 
solution  is  the  first  step  towards   the   solution   of  the 


PHILOSOPHY    OF    METHOD.  43 

others.  This  is  the  experimental  method:  we  first  ob- 
serve and  register,  all  the  principles  or  laws  which 
actually  govern  the  action  and  development  of  the 
faculties; — we  admit  only  those  facts  and  principles 
which  really  exist,  but  of  those  we  reject  none; — we  ask 
not  why  they  exist,  or  for  what  they  exist;  it  is  enough 
that  they  do  exist,  and  what  is  in  nature  must  form  an 
element  of  science; — nor  are  we  in  haste  to  classify  the 
results,  in  order  to  bring  out  some  favorite  theory;  we 
are  content  to  wait  patiently  until  their  registration  is 
completed,  so  that  their  relations  may  be  rendered 
apparent,  and  that  their  theory  may  gradually  unfold 
itself. 

The  philosophy  of  method,  as  applied  to  teaching, 
is  not  less  difficult  than  important.  The  diversity  of 
views  which  at  present  obtains  in  relation  to  systems  of 
teaching,  is  a  sufficient  evidence  of  the  difficulty  of  the 
subject,  and  a  sufficient  testimony  to  the  want  of  some 
recognized  principles. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  difficulties  peculiar  to 
the  inquiry: — 

1.  Although  the  same  powers  and  affections  are  found 
in  every  human  being,  yet  these  powers  and  affections 
exist  in  different  degrees  and  states  of  development  in 
different  individuals.  Hence  it  follows,  that  a  system 
of  instruction  which  is  adapted  to  one  class  of  pupils 
may  not  be  suitable  to  another. 

2.  Different  causes  may,  and  no  doubt  often  do,  pro- 
duce the  same  or  similar  effects.  This  arises  from  the 
constitution  of  the  mind  itself,  for  we  know  that  it 
admits  of  various  modes  of  development. 

3.  Teachers   differ   much   in   their   capabilities    and 


44  PHILiJSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

acquirements;  and  they  rarely  restrict  themselves  to  the 
use  of  any  special  system  of  instruction. 

However,  an  earnest  study  of  the  X)rinciples  of  method 
will  enable  us  to  surmount  these  obstacles.  In  con- 
ducting our  inquiries,  the  following  summary  of  rules 
and  principles,  having  a  special  bearing  on  the  subject, 
should  be  duly  considered. 

Importance  of  Definitions. 

No  science  can  make  a  satisfactory  progress  unless  its 
technical  terms  are  clearly  and  precisely  defined.  This 
is  especially  true  in  relation  to  the  science  of  education. 
At  present  we  have  scarcely  any  recognized  terms  in 
education;  we  dignify  by  the  name  of  a  system  or 
method  some  trifling  modification  of  a  general  principle, 
and  we  make  use  of  terms  without  sufliciently  limiting 
their  amount  of  meaning.  Thus  we  speak  of  "the  ellip- 
tical method,"  as  if  it  contained  some  peculiar  principle 
which  was  not  involved  in  "the  interrogative  system  " 
of  instruction;  some  persons  erroneously  use  the  term 
"  simultaneous  teaching,"  to  mean  the  same  thing  as 
"  collective  teaching."  As  a  preliminary  step,  therefore, 
to  ihe  attainment  of  exact  knowledge  in  the  science  of 
method,  we  should  always  define  the  terms  which  we 
employ,  before  proceeding  to  the  detail  of  facts,  or  the 
elucidation  of  principles. 

Collection  of  Facts. 

The  first  step,  in  the  attainment  of  a  kiKJwledge  of 
right  methods  of  teaching,  is  an  extensive  acquisition  of 
facts.  In  recording  these  facts,  all  the  conditions  and 
collateral  circumstances  should  be  carefully  noted,  for 


PHILOSOPHY    OF    METHOD.  45 

even  circumstances  which  appear  trifling  at  the  time, 
may  really  be  important  links  in  the  chain  of  sequences. 

Educational  facts  may  be  derived  from  books  on 
mental  philosophy,  from  our  own  individual  experience 
and  observation,  as  well  as  from  the  experience  and  ob- 
servation of  others.  We  are  not  to  look  to  legislators 
and  school  managers  for  the  discovery  of  these  facts, 
nor  even  should  we  rely  too  much  upon  the  hasty  im- 
pressions of  the  visitors  of  schools.  It  is  upon  the 
labors  of  the  practical  teacher  that  we  must  chiefly  de- 
pend; it  is  his  business  to  watch  the  development  of  his 
pupils'  faculties  as  they  expand  themselves  under  the 
various  modes  of  instruction; — it  is  his  business  to  col- 
lect facts,  to  record  observations,  and  to  institute  ex- 
periments. 

In  forming  a  collection  of  facts,  the  following  rules 
must  be  observed: — 

1.  All  the  facts  should  be  fully  ascertained  or  authen- 
ticated; and  whilst  no  essential  facts  connected  with  the 
subject  should  be  wanting,  all  trivial  and  incidental  cir- 
cumstances should  be  omitted. 

2.  The  statement  should  contain  a  complete  and  fair 
view  of  all  the  facts  involved  in  the  inquiry,  and  none  of 
the  facts  should  be  in  any  way  modified  to  pander  to 
any  prec<mceived  theory. 

Teachers  should  aid  each  other  in  the  collection  of 
facts,  and  Government  Inspectors  should  afford  them 
every  facility  for  the  attainment  of  this  object.  Some 
facts  transmitted  to  us  may  appear  to  be  contrary  to  our 
individual  experience;  let  us  beware  how  we  reject 
them !  Our  prejudices  may  be  standing  in  the  way  of 
the  advancement  of  the  truth.    We  should  test  the  facts 


46  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

by  some  new  experiment,  or  we  may  find  some  hitherto 
neglected  series  of  facts  in  our  own  experience  which 
may  lead  us  to  a  right  decision.  Hitherto,  the  facts 
accumulated  by  teachers  have  been  almost  ignored.  An 
inspector  enters  a  school  with  a  stern  determination  of 
observing  everything  for  himself,  without  calling  in  the 
aid  of  the  teacher;  after  spending  a  few  hours  in  that 
school,  he  leaves  it  with  the  belief  that  he  has  collected 
all  the  facts  of  its  last  year's  history.  Lamentable  error  ! 
that  teacher,  if  worthy  of  his  office,  could  have  given 
him  the  history  of  the  growth  and  development  of  every 
boy's  mind  and  character,  with  a  true  account  of  the  in- 
fluences which  had  been  brought  to  bear  upon  them.  We 
look  to  the  hearty  co-operation  of  inspectors  and  teachers 
for  the  accumulation  of  facts.  But  the  inspector  must 
not  always  appear  before  the  teacher  in  the  stern  char- 
acter of  censor  and  judge;  he  should  also  appear  as  a 
friend  and  fellow-worker  in  the  great  common  cause. 

In  forming  a  collection  of  facts,  the  following  sources 
of  error  should  be  carefully  guarded  against: — 

1.  Receiving  facts  from  persons  whom  we  have  reason 
to  suspect  of  having  some  interested  object  to  serve  in 
disguising  or  modifying  them. 

2.  Receiving  important  facts  from  persons  in  whose 
judgment  and  power  of  observation  we  have  not  the 
fullest  confidence. 

3.  Receiving  partial  statements  of  facts  given  witli 
the  view  of  sii])porting  some  favorite  system  of  edu- 
cation. 

4.  Receiving  opinions  as  facts.  In  guarding  against 
this  fruitful  source  of  error,  it  is  above  all  things  neces- 
sary that  we  should 


PHILOSOPHY    OF    METHOD.  47 

Distinguish  between  Facts  and  Opinions. 

The  confounding  of  facts  and  opinions  should  be  care- 
fully guarded  ag^ainst;  for  we  are  all  too  apt  to  mix  up 
our  own  impressions  and  favorite  theories  with  the 
detail  of  facts,  and  hence  it  is  often  very  difficult  for  us 
to  separate  the  one  from  the  other.  When  a  teacher 
states  that  he  has  found  a  certain  system  of  instruction 
produce  the  most  satisfactory  results,  he  does  not  restrict 
himself  to  a  simple  statement  of  facts,  for  he  gives  his 
opinion  of  the  character  of  the  results,  whereas  he 
should  simply  describe  what  these  results  were.  A 
teacher  gives  us  an  opinion  in  place  of  a  fact,  when  he 
states  that  he  has  found  the  elliptical  system  of  instruc- 
tion produce  such  and  such  results,  when  a  full  and 
simple  statement  of  facts  would  be,  that  in  the  course  of 
teaching  on  the  collective  system,  he  had  adopted  the 
form  of  elliptical  response.  The  master  of  a  school 
teaches,  for  the  most  part,  after  a  particular  system,  and 
his  pupils  make  progress;  this  progress  is  ascribed  to 
the  particular  system;  now  the  progress  of  the  pupils  is 
a  fact,  and  that  the  master  taught  by  a  particular  sys- 
tem may  also  be  a  fact;  but  that  this  system  of  instruc- 
tion was  the  true  cause  of  the  progress  is  an  opinion; 
for  it  is  giving  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect  between 
two  facts;  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  some  hidden  or 
unobserved  influence  may  have  solely,  or  at  least  mainly, 
contributed  to  the  progress  of  the  pupils.  The  omission 
of  a  fact  in  the  chain  of  sequences  is  often  as  injurious 
to  the  cause  of  truth,  as  a  misrepresentation  of  the  case. 
Our  statement  of  facts,  therefore,  should  not  only  be 
free  from  opinions  and  impressions,  but  it  should  at  the 


48  PUILOSOPHY   OF    EDUCATION. 

same  time  be  full  and  faithful,  and  not  distorted  in  any 
way  with  the  view  of  supporting  some  preconceived 
notions  or  theories. 

These  are  some  of  the  rocks  on  which  our  method  is 
often  wrecked, — it  is  necessary  that  we  should  signalize 
them. 

Compa/rison  and  Classification  of  Facts.     Relation  of  Cause 
and  Effect, 

In  order  to  arrive  at  general  conclusions,  our  first 
step  is  to  arrange  the  facts  according  to  the  points  in 
which  they  agree;  our  next  step  is  to  strip  our  groups 
or  collections  of  facts  of  all  their  extraneous  circum- 
stances and  contingent  conditions;  that  is  to  say,  by  a 
comparison  of  our  different  groups  of  facts,  we  must 
separate  those  conditions  which  are  essential  to  the 
result,  or  desired  effect,  from  those  which  are  accidental 
and  non-essential.  Having  arrived  at  a  uniform  and 
invariable  series  of  sequences,  our  next  step  in  the  pro- 
cess is  to  trace  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect.  When 
one  event  is  invariably  followed  by  another  event,  we 
speak  of  one  being  the  cause,  the  other  the  effect.  Now 
to  the  facts  which  are  so  uniformly  associated,  we  have 
no  hesitation  in  attributing  the  true  relation  of  cause 
and  effect.  Let  us  take  an  illustration  from  Dr.  Wells' 
theory  of  dew.  The  facts  of  this  case  are  these:  moist- 
ure or  dew  is  found  on  the  surface  of  plants  in  clear, 
cloudless  nights,  but  little  or  no  moisture  is  found  on 
the  ])lants  in  cloudy  nights;  these  results  take  place  for 
all  plants,  whatever  may  be  their  color,  <fec.,  and  what- 
ever may  be  their  absolute  temperature.  Here  the 
incidental  or  non-essential  facts  are  the  color,  absolute 


PHILOSOPHY    OF   METHOD.  49 

temperature,  &c.,of  the  plants;  the  essential  facts  are,  that 
dew  is  formed  on  clear  nights;  and  that  no  dew  is 
formed  on  cloudy  nights;  hence  the  cloudless  sky  is  an 
essential  condition  for  the  formation  of  dew. 

In  education,  the  tracing  of  the  relation  of  cause  and 
effect,  among  a  succession  of  events,  is  always  a  matter 
of  difficulty  and  delicacy,  and  is  often  attended  with 
considerable  liabilities  to  error.  But  the  difficulty  of 
the  task  should  not  deter  us  from  the  undertaking.  The 
following  sources  of  fallacy  deserve  especial  notice: — 

1.  The  cause  which  we  assign  may  be  merely  an  inci- 
dental circumstance,  and  not  essentially  connected,  as  a 
uniform  sequence,  with  the  result. 

This  fallacy  frequently  occurs  in  matters  of  education, 
for  how  often  do  we  find  some  trifling  mode  or  manner 
of  teaching — such  as  the  class  arrangements,  &c. — dig- 
nified by  the  name  of  a  system,  which  is  said  to  work 
out  such  and  such  results  ! 

2.  The  events,  which  we  regard  as  cause  and  effect, 
may  be  closely  connected,  but  not  in  the  relation  of 
cause  and  effect.  The  true  cause  may  be  hidden  or 
overlooked  in  our  haste  or  in  our  fondness  for  some 
favorite  theory. 

For  example,  it  is  a  common  thing  to  hear  the  advo- 
cates of  the  individual  system  of  instruction  appeal  to 
the  fact,  that  good  scholars  were  formed  under  that 
system;  while  the  truth  is,  the  so-called  good  scholars 
were  made,  for  the  most  part,  independently  of  the 
characteristic  features  of  that  system,  viz.,  by  home 
instruction,  by  the  time  of  training,  and  by  the  exten- 
sive use  of  class-books. 

It  remains  yet  to  be  determined   what  conditions  are 


60  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

essential,  and  what  are  only  accidental,  in  most  of  our 
present  system  of  education.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
some  distinguished  person  amongst  Her  Majesty's  In- 
spectors, who  are  in  possession  of  a  vast  number  of  facts, 
will  confer  this  boon  on  society. 

General  Principles. 

Having  traced  among  our  groups  of  facts  the  relation 
of  uniform  sequence,  the  next  step  in  our  process  is  to 
bring  a  number  of  them  together,  and  to  discover  in 
them  some  common  fact,  or  element,  or  general  princi- 
ple. This  common  element,  or  general  principle,  be- 
comes a  distinct  subject  of  contemplatiou,  and  it  is 
taken  as  characteristic  of  a  whole  class.  In  forming  this 
generalization  two  things  are  especially  to  be  observed: 
1st,  the  principle  should  be  a  real  fact;  2nd,  it  should  be 
true  for  all  the  cases  without  exception. 

Let  us  illustrate  the  two  processes  of  classification  and 
generalization. 

We  take  a  number  of  bodies  differing  in  their  external 
form  and  color;  one  is  an  iron  ore,  another  a  steel  bar, 
another  has  the  shape  of  a  horse-shoe,  but  they  all  agree 
in  attracting  iron,  and  they  also  agree  in  having  iron  in 
their  composition, — we  classify  these  bodies,  and  call 
them  magnets;  color,  form,  <fec.,  are  accidental  proper- 
ties of  the  class,  and  composition  and  the  fact  of  attract- 
ing iron  are  the  essential  qualities  of  the  class.  But  we 
now  discover,  that  if  any  one  of  these  straight  or  ob- 
long magnets  be  freely  suspended,  one  extremity  will  be 
always  directed  towards  the  north,  and  the  other 
extremity  towards  the  south;  here   we  discover  a  com- 


PHILOSOPHY    OF   METHOD.  51 

men  or  general  principle  belonging  to  the  whole  class — 
viz.,  polarity ;  this  is  a  process  of  generalization. 

The  relations  of  things  form  the  materials  of  method; 
and  the  general  principles  regulating  these  relations 
constitutes  the  leading  element  of  method  as  applied  to 
those  particular  things. 

Having  brought  together  a  number  of  different  sys- 
tems of  instruction  which  are  always  attended  with  a 
common  result,  we  must  endeavor  to  discover  some 
principle  which  is  common  to  them  all, — this  common 
principle  will  give  us  the  idea  of  a  general  method  of 
instruction,  which  will  be  operative  amid  a  certain 
variety  of  incidental  conditions. 

As  a  general  principle  is  nothing  more  than  a  conven- 
ient form  of  expressing  a  general  fact,  its  legitimate 
application  is  limited  to  the  particular  cases  from  which 
it  has  been  deduced.  Hence  the  error,  into  which  many 
teachers  fall,  of  pushing  certain  systems  beyond  their 
legitimate  sphere  of  application. 

A  general  principle,  according  to  the  strict  acceptation 
in  which  we  have  hitherto  taken  it,  is  simply  a  general 
fact,  but  it  sometimes  assumes  the  form  of  a  theoby  or 
an  HYPOTHESIS.  In  an  hypothesis,  a  thing  or  principle 
is  supposed  to  exist;  but,  like  a  strict  general  principle,  it 
should  adequately  explain  all  the  facts  which  belong  to 
the  subject-matter.  General  facts  simply  give  the  rela- 
tion of  law  without  making  any  assumptions;  hypotheses 
express  the  relation  of  ascertained  facts  by  the  supposed 
operation  of  a  thing  or  principle,  which  may  or  may 
not  exist;  hypotheses,  in  most  cases,  only  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  conveniently  grouping  together  an  extensive 
series  of  facts  and  phenomena.     Thus,  for  example,  that 


62  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

the  planetary  bodies  attract  one  another  with  forces 
which  are  directly  as  their  masses,  and  inversely  as  the 
squares  of  their  distances,  is  a  general  fact;  for  the  force 
really  exists,  and  really  acts  by  the  law  which  is  assigned 
to  it.  In  Franklin's  electrical  theory,  electricity  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  subtle  fluid,  which  may  exist  in  excess  or 
in  deficiency  in  bodies,  thus  giving  rise  to  the  two  kinds 
of  electricity,  which,  according  to  this  theory,  are  called 
positive  electricity  and  negative  electricity.  The 
hypothesis,  in  this  case,  serves  the  purpose  of  connect- 
ing together  a  large  number  of  facts.  Now  that  there 
are  two  kinds  of  electricity,  possessing  certain  distinct- 
ive properties,  is  a  general  fact,  but  that  these  properties 
belong  to  a  single  fluid  is  a  conjecture  — an  hypothesis — 
which  is  more  or  less  useful  to  us  according  as  it  more 
or  less  completely  explains  the  observed  phenomena. 

General  facts,  as  well  as  theories,  are  sometimes  sug- 
gestive, that  is  to  say,  they  sometimes  lead  us  to  suspect 
the  existence  of  some  new  fact  or  principle;  in  such 
cases,  however,  it  is  the  province  of  observation  and 
experiment  to  confirm  or  overthrow  the  truth  of  the 
conjecture. 

Educational  theories  should  be  looked  upon  with 
distrust,  and  if  acted  upon  at  all  it  should  be  with 
extreme  caution.  They  should  be  regarded  in  no  othi^r 
light  than  as  convenient  modes  of  connecting  a  series  of 
facts,  or  as  suggestive  of  some  course  of  expeiimental 
inquiry.  For  example,  a  teacher  would  run  into  a  mis- 
chievous error  if  he  were  to  act  upon  the  phrenological 
hypothesis,  that  the  faculties  and  affections  of  our  intel- 
lectual and  moral  nature  respectively  act  through  and 
by  particular  portions  or  organs  of  the  brain,  and  that. 


PHILOSOPHY    OF    METHOD.  63 

Other  things  being  the  same,  the  development  of  any 
particular  faculty  or  function  is  in  proportion  to  the 
magnitude  of  that  particular  organ,  or  region  of  the 
brain,  through  which  the  faculty  or  function  is  supposed 
to  act.  To  those  teachers  who  seem  disposed  to  put 
faith  in  this  imperfect  theory,  we  should  say: — Why 
act  upon  any  theory,  when  you  can  ascertain,  with  the 
greatest  precision,  the  true  character  and  capabilities  of 
your  pupils  by  actual  observation  ? 

There  are  two  extreme  views,  in  relation  to  general 
methods  of  instruction,which  are  equally  unphilosophical, 
and  which  should  be  equally  avoided.  The  one  is  an 
implicit  confidence  in  method;  the  other  is  an  utter 
skepticism  as  regards  the  utility  of  any  method  whatever. 

Evils  of  Implicit  Confidence  in  Method. 

No  system  of  teaching  can  be  efficient  unless  the 
master  possess  all  those  qualities  which  the  system  itself 
presupposes.  If  a  teacher  is  wanting  in  any  of  those 
essential  qualities,  it  would  probably  be  better  for  him 
to  modify  the  system  to  suit  the  circumstances.  More- 
over, the  state  and  condition  of  the  pupils  may  not  cor- 
respond to  that  which  the  system  presupposes.  The  blind, 
unreasoning  attachment  of  teachers  to  systems  has  often 
brought  ridicule  upon  themselves  and  discredit  upon  the 
systems  which  they  professed  to  follow.  Failures  of  this 
kind  have,  no  doubt,  often  led  to  the  unphilosophical 
opinion  "that  each  individual  ought  to  have  either  his 
own  system  or  no  system  at  all."*  The  teacher  should, 
in  the  fullest  sense,  be  the  master  and  not  the  slave  of 

*  Quarterly  Journal  of  Education,  No.  IX. 


54  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

the  system  by  which  he  teaches.  The  modes  in  which 
the  facuhJes  of  children  develop  themselves  are  suffi- 
ciently various  to  admit  of  slight  modifications  in  the 
systems  of  instruction,  in  order  to  suit  the  capablities  of 
the  master.  We  can  hardly  say  of  any  existing  system, 
that  it  is  the  only  efficient  one;  and  as  more  or  less  im- 
perfection is  to  be  found  in  every  existing  system  of 
education,  so  it  is  equally  true,  that  more  or  less  truth 
may  be  found  in  all  of  them.  Until  masters  are  thor- 
oughly educated  for  their  work,  we  must  hold  that  the 
system  should  be  made  for  the  man,  and  not  the  man 
for  the  system. 

As  children  love  change  and  novelty,  a  good  teacher 
will  vary  his  subjects  of  instruction  as  well  as  his 
methods  of  instruction  accordingly;  his  judgment  must 
be  exercised  in  selecting  those  methods  which  are  most 
suited  to  the  existing  conditions  of  his  school. 

No  intelligent  teacher  would  ever  attempt  to  carry 
out  to  the  strict  letter  any  of  our  existing  rules  and 
systems.  The  following  may  be  taken  as  a  well-estab- 
lished rule  in  teaching  children  some  of  the  simplest 
elements  of  knowledge:  "  Begin  from  the  beginning  of 
the  subject,  and  never  take  a  second  step  till  you  are 
8u;-e  that  the  first  is  perfectly  acquired."  Now,  this 
rule,  though  true  in  its  spirit  and  intention,  is  very  far 
from  being  strictly  true  as  applied  to  some  subjects.  In 
teaching  the  alphabet,  for  example,  who  would  ever 
think  of  making  a  child  perfectly  learn  one  letter  before 
it  is  taken  to  another;  or,  in  teaching  arithmetic,  of 
making  the  child  perfectly  learn  the  rule  of  addition 
before  it  is  taught  anything  of  substraction  ? 

It  will  be  instructive  to  consider  more  in  detail,  some 


PHILOSOPHY    OF   METHOD.  65 

of  the   evils   resulting   from   a   slavish   attachment  to 
systems. 

I.  Evils  of  attaching  undue  importance  to  the  non- 
essential features  of  a  system. 

II.  Evils  arising  from  not  giving  due  attention  to  the 
limits  of  certain  modes  of  instruction. 

III.  Evils  arising  from  the  neglect  of  auxiliary  aids. 

IV.  No  system  can  be  efficient  without  intelligence 
and  industry  on  the  part  of  the  master,  and  without  he 
is  religiously  imbued  with  a  high  sense  of  the  dignity 
and  importance  of  his  work. 

I.  One  teacher  cannot  give  Bible  lessons  without  a 
gallery,—  another  cannot  teach  arithmetic  without  the 
Festalozzian  boards, — another  defers  the  teaching  of 
drawing  until  his  committee  can  afford  to  purchase 
Messrs.  Parker  and  Co.'s  models, — and  so  on.  To  such 
teachers  we  would  say,  beware  of  an  undue  attachment 
to  the  mere  mechanical  forms  of  individual  systems. 
Imbue  your  minds  with  the  spirit  of  these  systems,  and, 
above  all,  study  the  philosophy  of  their  method.  If  you 
want  a  plant  to  grow,  you  water  the  root,  not  the  leaves 
and  branches;  so,  in  like  manner,  the  teacher  should  go 
to  the  root — the  fundamental  principles  of  education. 

II.  Some  modes  of  instruction,  very  good  as  regards 
their  legitimate  sphere  of  application,  may  become  use- 
less, if  not  ridiculous,  when  pushed  beyond  their  proper 
limits.  It  is  desirable  that  these  limits  should  be  duly 
ascertained  and  defined,  by  a  strict  induction  of  facts. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  method  of  instruction  should  not 
be  despised  because  it  is  not  of  universal  application. 
Because  the  writing  system  of  Mulhauser,  for  example, 
should  not  be  found  efficient  in  making  finished  writers, 


56  PHILOSOPHY    OP*    EDUCATION. 

is  no  reason  wliy  it  should  not  be  one  of  the  most  eligi- 
ble modes  for  teaching  the  first  elements  of  foi-m  to 
children.  In  this  case,  the  business  of  the  philosophical 
inquirer  is  to  determine  the  extent  to  which  the  system 
should  be  carried. 

Again,  a  mode  of  instruction  may  be  subsidiary  to 
some  more  general  method,  with  which  it  is  necessarily 
associated,  and  to  which  it  may  give  a  higher  efficiency. 
In  this  case  we  should  determine  the  relative  importance 
of  the  subordinate  method,  and  the  most  favorable 
conditions  for  its  application.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
modes  of  instruction  which  are  employed  together, 
should  be  in  harmony  with  each  other,  and  also  in  keep- 
ing with  the  other  recognized  principles  of  method. 

The  methods  of  instruction  adapted  to  the  young, 
may  not  always  be  best  calculated  for  the  instruction  of 
adults.  In  this  case  we  should  determine  the  period  at 
which  this  change  of  method  should  be  made.  An  able 
teacher,  who  had  been  successful  in  teaching  arithmetic 
to  boys  by  the  Pestalozzian  boards,  attempted  to  teach 
adults  on  the  same  plan;  but  he  failed,  and  thereby 
brought  himself  and  his  system  into  unmerited  con- 
tempt. 

III.  The  teacher  should  watchfully  guard  against  uny 
undue  confidence,  not  only  in  his  own  teaching  power^i, 
but  also  in  the  system  by  which  he  teaches.  He  should 
be  ever  ready  to  avail  himself  of  all  the  means  within 
his  reach,  for  giving  increased  efiiciency  to  his  system. 
Without,  for  example,  in  the  least  undervaluing  his  sys- 
tem of  collective  teaching,  he  should  not  overlook  the 
aid  which  he  may  occasionally  receive  from  individual 
instruction;  nor  should  he  despise  the  use  of  Text  Books, 


PHILOSOPHY   OF   METHOD.  67 

especially  when  associated  with  home  instruction.  The  appar- 
ent discrepancies  in  the  results  of  some  of  our  existing 
systems  are  doubtless,  to  a  great  extent,  due  to  the 
want  of  a  proper  appreciation  of  certain  subsidiary  aids 
to  class  instruction. 

lY.  Much  remains  to  be  effected  by  the  individual 
merits  of  the  teacher.  Methods  of  teaching  are  little 
better  than  dead  letters  in  the  hands  of  stupid  and  indo- 
lent pedagogues,  but  they  become  living,  eflScient  prin- 
ciples in  the  minds  of  thinking  and  active  teachers.  Sys- 
tems should  be  tested  by  the  teacher  and  modified  by 
him,  if  found  necessary,  to  suit  the  various  tastes,  habits 
and  future  pursuits  of  the  children  placed  under  his  care. 
He  must  become  a  moral  philosopher,  always  reflecting 
and  experimenting  upon  matters  of  education.  The 
school-room  is  his  laboratory  and  his  studio;  the  little 
boys  by  whom  he  is  surrounded  are  the  subjects  of  his 
reflections  and  experiments,  and  the  great  end  is  their 
intellectual  and  moral  amelioration.  The  teacher  is  a 
much  more  elevated  being  than  the  mere  mechanic. 
The  results  of  machinery  are  splendid  and  overpower- 
ing; but  then  all  that  is  truly  great  in  these  results  is 
due  to  the  creative  mind  that  gave  the  method, — the 
law,  physical  or  mathematical,  or  perhaps  both  physical 
and  mathematical,  by  which  these  results  are  produced. 
The  machine  makers,  according  to  our  systems  in  the 
division  of  labor,  are  little  better  than  machines  making 
machines;  one  forges  a  bolt,  another  files  it,  and  an- 
other puts  it  in  its  place;  one  casts  a  wheel,  another 
turns  it  on  the  lathe,  and  another  superintends  the  ma- 
chine that  cuts  teeth  upon  its  rim;  thus  each  man  toils 
from  morning  till  night,  and  the  labor  of  one  day  is  the 


68  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

type  of  the  labor  of  that  which  succeeds.  It  is  not  so 
with  the  teacher;  creative  minds  cannot  so  cut  out  and 
divide  the  labor  of  instruction,  or  so  Jay  out  the  princi- 
ples and  methods  of  teaching,  as  to  supersede  the  exer- 
cise of  his  reasoning  and  reflective  powers.  His  work 
is  professional, — it  is  akin  to  the  medical  man's.  The 
teacher  is  no  machine, — his  mind  is  above  all  rules 
and  superior  to  all  authority  in  relation  to  his  work. 
Boards  of  education  and  visiting  committees  should  not 
interfere  too  much  with  the  immediate  duties  and  pecu- 
liar functions  of  the  schoolmaster.  Elevate  bis  social, 
intellectual,  and  moral  condition,  but  do  not  legislate 
for  him  with  respect  to  methods  of  instruction. 

In  order  that  a  teacher  should  be  thoroughly  devoted 
to  his  work,  he  should  be  duly  sensible  of  its  importance; 
— he  should  believe,  that  the  future  character  of  a  coun- 
try depends  upon  the  education  of  its  children; — he 
should  be  fully  aware,  that,  in  the  soft  and  virgin  soil  of 
their  souls,  he  may  plant  the  shoots  of  poison  or  sow  the 
seeds  of  sweet-scented  flowers  or  of  life-giving  fruit; — 
he  should  realize  the  momentous  thought,  thaX  the  little 
prattling,  thoughtless  children  by  whom  he  is  sur- 
rounded, are  to  become  the  men  of  the  approaching  age. 
As  a  necessary  consequence  of  all  this,  he  should  care- 
fully look  to  the  predilections  of  children; — that  child 
who  is  amusing  himself  with  drawing  triangles  and  cir- 
cles may,  under  proper  training,  hereafter  become 
another  Pascal; — that  little  dirty  urchin  who  is  plucking 
flowers  by  the  wayside,  may  become  the  poet  or  the 
orator  of  his  age; — that  thoughtful,  feeble  body  who  is 
watching  the  effect  of  the  steam  as  it  blows  and  puffs 
from  the  tea-kettle,  may  become    another  Watt,  des- 


PHILOSOPHY    OF   METHOD.  59 

tined  to  multiply  the  resources  of  our  national  wealth 
and  power; — that  ruthless  little  savage,  who  is  leading 
mimic  battles  of  the  snow  storm,  may  become  (unless 
his  evil  tendencies  are  counteracted  by  education)  an- 
other Napoleon,  who  may  seize  with  a  giant  grasp  the 
iron  thunderbolt  of  death,  and  on  the  wreck  of  a  people's 
hopes  and  happiness  build  himself  up  a  terrible  monu- 
ment of  guilt  and  greatness. 

The  work  of  the  soul-devoted  teacher  should  not 
cease  with  the  school  hours; — the  predilections  and 
spontaneous  ebullitione  of  feeling  in  children,  in  their 
moments  of  leisure  and  play,  should  be  carefully  watched 
by  him,  in  order  that  he  may  encourage  and  aid  the  dea. 
velopment  of  what  may  be  good  or  useful,  and  be  able 
to  suppress,  or  direct  into  a  legitimate  channel,  what  may 
be  evil  or  dangerous. 

Under  a  new  and  better  order  of  things,  an  efficient, 
soul-devoted  teacher  will  become  one  of  the  great 
thinkers  of  his  age.  His  leisure  hours  will  be  given  to 
the  study  of  the  philosophy  of  mind  and  the  principles 
of  method,  and  his  daily  labor  will  consist  in  the  practice 
of  that  philosophy  and  those  principles.  Child  of  hope  ! 
despair  not  in  the  discharge  of  your  arduous  duties,  and 
doubt  not  but  that  public  opinion  will  award  to  you  that 
social  position  to  which  your  talents  and  usefulness  en- 
title you; — toil  on  in  all  faith  and  humility!  the  hour  of 
your  emancipation  is  not  distant, — injustice  is  always 
followed  by  a  reaction, — and  the  dark,  cheerless  period 
of  debasement  and  uncalled-for  self-sacrifice  will  be  fol- 
lowed by  light  and  gladness,  when  under  the  blessing 
of  God  you  shall  possess  the  means  as  well  as  the  capa- 


60  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

bilities  for  adding  lo  our  knowledge  of  the  science  of 
method  as  applied  to  education. 

Experiments  required  to  test  Systems  of  Education. 

A  system  of  instruction  may  be  formed  with  a  due  re- 
gard to  the  abstract  nature  of  the  being  to  be  educated, 
but  it  may  not  be  practicable  under  the  conditions  and 
circumstances  of  a  given  school,  where  perhaps  large 
masses  of  children  have  to  be  taught  under  the  super- 
vision of  one  master,  with  limited  material  aids;  hence 
it  is  necessary  that  all  systems  should  be  brought  to  the 
test  of  experiment. 

Whilst  sound  principles  of  education  gain  new  force 
by  every  fresh  confirmation  of  their  truth,  false  theories 
lose  some  portion  of  their  hold  on  the  prejudices  of  men 
by  every  new  exposure  of  their  fallacy.  Some  thor- 
oughly digested  systems  of  experiment  are  yet  desider- 
ated in  education.  The  form  and  object  of  experiments 
are  directly  under  our  control,  and  in  this  respect  the 
results  of  experiment  are  more  valuable  than  facts  de- 
rived from  observation  and  ordinary  experience.  For 
this  purpose  we  should  like  to  see  some  experimental 
school  established  under  our  Government  Inspectors, 
where,  for  example,  any  two  rival  systems  of  instruction 
might  be  placed  exactly  under  the  same  circumstances 
with  the  view  of  determining  their  relative  efficiency. 
People  generally  are  slow  in  adopting  what  are  called 
improved  methods;  their  prejudices  are  always  in  favor 
of  what  is  old  and  English,  and  nothing  but  an  experi- 
mentum  cruets  will  alter  their  predilections.  Many  old 
systems  are  associated  with  certain  extraneous  circum- 


PHILOSOPHY    OF   METHOD.  61 

stances  which  consecrate  their  errors  and  give  them 
an  apparent  truth.  Thus,  for  example,  the  individual 
system  of  teaching,  which  at  present  obtains  in  most  of 
our  middle  class  schools,  is  so  interwoven  with  the  sys- 
tem of  home  instruction  that  we  cannot  see  all  the  evils  of 
this  system  so  fully  as  we  should  do  if  it  were  standing 
on  its  own  merits.  It  should  be  stripped  of  this  favora- 
ble association  in  order  to  exhibit  it  in  its  true  aspect. 
And  it  may  be  here  worthy  of  observation,  that  it  would 
be  well  for  us  to  ascertain,  with  some  degree  of  exactness, 
how  far  this  home  instruction  should  be  employed  in 
connection  with  the  system  of  collective  teaching,  which 
is  at  present  in  operation  in  our  schools  for  the  poor. 

The  importance  of  experimental  facts  may  be  illus- 
trated by  the  history  of  physical  science.  Before  the 
time  of  Galileo  it  was  believed  that  water  rose  in  the 
common  pump  from  nature's  horror  or  a  vacuum.  An 
experimental  fact  was  wanting  to  expose  the  fallacy  of 
this  hypothesis;  that  fact  was  supplied  to  Galileo  by 
the  workmen  of  Tuscany  when  they  found  that  water 
would  not  rise  in  the  barrel  of  a  pump  higher  than  34 
feet.  In  like  manner,  we  may  find  that  some  fortunate 
experiment  or  fact  of  observation,  may  lead  to  a  rever- 
sion of  some  of  our  existing  dogmas  in  education.  In 
conducting  experiments,  it  may  be  useful  to  observe,  the 
truth  of  a  great  general  system  of  education  may  be 
confirmed  in  two  ways,  viz.,  by  altering  the  conditions 
under  which  it  is  made  to  act,  or  by  altering  the  inten- 
sity of  the  element  which  constitutes  its  distinguishing 
feature.  When  the  pupil  of  Galileo  substituted  mer- 
cury for  water,  to  test  the  presence  of  atmospheric 
pressure,   he  rightly  considered,  that  if  there  was   a 


62  rniLOSOPHY  of  education. 

constantly  acting  law  of  pressure,  the  column  of  the  one 
fluid  would  be  to  that  of  the  other  in  the  inverse  ratio 
of  their  densities;  it  is  well  known  that  the  result  of  the 
experiment  confirmed  the  truth  of  the  theory.  Not 
satisfied  with  this  confirmation,  Pascal  proposed  to  try 
the  experimentum  crucis  by  varying  the  intensity  of  the 
operating  principle,  and  he  therefore  had  the  Torricellian 
experiment  performed  upon  the  top  of  a  mountain,  where 
the  atmospheric  column  was  diminished;  the  result  of 
this  experiment,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say,  fully 
established  the  great  principle  of  atmospheric  pressure. 
In  like  manner,  it  may  not  be  too  presumptuous  to  sup- 
pose, the  truth  of  many  of  our  general  theories  and 
systems  of  instruction  may  be  confirmed  or  overthrown. 

To  Estimate  the  Results  of  Method, 

Without  undervaluing  the  communication  of  positive 
knowledge  in  the  education  of  children,  we  should  in 
general  attach  the  greatest  importance  to  that  system 
which  tends  most  to  develop  and  improve  their  intellec- 
tual and  moral  powers.  But  it  is  possible  that,  in  our 
regard  for  this  darling  idea,  we  may  overlook  the  fact 
that  the  study  of  those  subjects  which  are  the  most  use- 
ful is  generally  the  most  instructive.  The  school  of  the 
poor  should  never  become  an  intellectual  gymnasium, 
where  the  future  destinies  of  the  children  are  disregard- 
ed. Children,  in  the  course  of  nature,  become  men  and 
women,  and  their  pursuits  and  studies  in  school  should 
prepare  them  for  playing  their  parts  in  the  great  world 
in  which  they  must  move  and  act.  In  the  education  of 
a  young  gentleman,  it  matters  little  whether  his  muscles 
aro  st rtnotluMK'd  by  digging  in  the  garden,  or  by  exer- 


PHILOSOPHY   OF    METHOD.  63 

cises  with  the  parallel  bars  in  the  play  ground ;  but  with 
the  child  of  poverty  it  is  very  different, — his  lot  is  labor, 
and  labor  should  form  a  part  of  his  school  training  ;  to 
an  Eton  scholar,  it  may  be  of  little  consequence  whether 
he  learns  land-surveying,  or  whether  his  tutors  teach 
him  to  decipher  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  or  an"y  other 
hieroglyphics,  provided  his  intellectual  powers  are  exer- 
cised and  developed;  but  with  the  son  of  the  mechanic 
it  is  different, — his  period  of  school  training  being 
limited,  he  has  no  time  to  spare  for  learning  things  which 
have  only  a  remote  bearing  on  his  future  employment; 
to  him,  the  school-room  should  be,  in  a  certain  sense, 
the  vestibule  of  the  workshop.  In  estimating,  therefore, 
the  results  of  systems  in  primary  schools,  a  due  regard 
should  be  paid  to  this  two-fold  aspect  of  education. 

In  the  education  of  adults  the  matter  is  somewhat 
different,  for  in  this  case  the  chief  end,  if  not  the  sole 
end,  of  class  instruction  should,  obviously,  be  the  com- 
munication of  that  knowledge  which  shall  be  imme- 
diately and  directly  beneficial  to  them  in  their  respective 
avocations. 

The  object  of  education  should  be  to  develop  all  the 
faculties  of  our  nature — physical,  intellectual,  and  moral; 
and  that,  too,  in  harmony  with  one  another.  A  system 
sometimes  tends  only  to  develop  one  set  of  faculties  to 
the  neglecting  of  all  the  others.  When  this  is  the  case, 
the  teacher  should  adopt  some  system  which  shall  be 
supplemental  to  the  other,  so  that  the  two  systems, 
acting  in  conjunction,  shall  exercise  all  the  faculties  of 
the  pupils.  The  same  observations  apply  to  the  subject 
of  study.  For  example,  the  study  of  arithmetic,  or 
geometry,  exercises  the  mind  in  only  one  kind  of  evi- 


64  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

dence — mathematical  evidence ;  therefore,  in  this  case,  the 
teacher  would  do  well  to  give,  side  by  side  with  arith- 
metic, some  easy  lessons  on  physical  science,  where  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  is  exercised  in  moral  evidence. 


CHAP.  HI. 

TO  ASCERTAIN  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  BEING  TO  BE  EDUCATED.-GENERAL 
FACTS  AND  PRINCIPLES.— PRIMITIVE  INTBLLIGENCE  THE  BASIS  OF  DEVEL- 
OPMENT.—CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  FACULTIES.-ESSENTIAL  POINTS  CON- 
SIDERED   IN    RELATION    TO    METHOD. 

To  ASCEETAIN  THE  NaTURE  OF  THE  BeING  TO  BE 

Educated. 

As  a  knowledge  of  human  nature  is  the  true  basis  of 
the  science  of  education,  it  is  essential  to  the  discovery 
of  general  principles  of  method,  that  we  should  have  a 
complete  record  of  general  facts  relative  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  intellectual  and  moral  faculties,  and  that  it 
should  be  fully  ascertained,  by  actual  observations  and 
experiments,  what  subjects  and  methods  of  instruction 
are  best  calculated  to  aid  the  development  of  these 
faculties  at  the  different  stages  of  their  growth;  in  order 
to  complete  the  science  of  education,  we  require  some- 
thing more  than  a  mere  knowledge  of  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  mental  philosophy.  Such  a  course  of  inquiry 
would  not  only  contribute  to  advance  the  science  of 
education,  but  it  would  also  give  us  a  more  complete 
view  of  the  natural  history  of  the  human  mind. 

It  has  been  said  that  psychological  analysis  will  lead 
us  to  a  knowledge  of  the  laws  regulating  the  develop- 


INTELLECTUAL  DEVELOPMENT.  65 

ment  of  our  faculties;  but  in  the  inquiry  we  may  be 
very  much  aided  by  observing  how  humanity,  or  the 
mind  of  society,  has  developed  itself  in  the  different 
stages  of  its  advancement;  that  is  to  say,  how  the  mind 
of  man  has  discovered  truth  after  truth,  and  built  up 
science  upon  science,  in  attaining  our  present  elevated 
condition  of  civilization  and  intelligence.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  mind,  considered  historically,  that  is,  object- 
ively, must  give  us  the  broad  features  of  the  mind 
considered  per  se,  that  is,  subjectively.  Those  natural 
instincts  and  impulses  which  evince  themselves  in  the 
individual  mind,  must  undoubtedly  exhibit  themselves 
on  a  grand  scale  in  the  development  of  the  race  itself, 
or  the  mind  of  man  acting  in  society. 

We  give  the  following  as  amongst  the  most  important 
general  facts  or  laws  relating  to  the  development  of  the 
faculties. 

General  Facts  Relating  to  the  Development  of 
THE   Intellectual   Faculties. 

1.  The  faculties  follow  a  law  of  progressive  develop- 
ment. 

2.  They  are  cultivated  by  being  properly  exercised  on 
appropriate  subjects. 

3.  They  are  weakened  by  being  over-taxed,  or  by 
being  exercised  on  inappropriate  subjects.  They  admit 
of  a  wrong  development. 

4.  All  our  knowledge  of  the  material  world  is  derived 
through  the  senses.  Material  objects,  and  the  various 
phenomena  of  the  external  world,  are  the  subjects  upon 
which  the  faculties  first  exercise  themselves.  Material 
aids  promote  the  activity  of  all  the  faculties. 

o 


66  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

5.  The  natural  force  of  the  faculties  differs  in  different 
individuals. 

6.  The  voluntary  faculties,  such  as  attention,  are 
influenced  by  motives.  Children  like  to  do  things  in 
company  with  one  another.  With  children,  the  natural 
and  most  healthful  incentive  to  attention  is  the  associa- 
tion of  pleasure  with  instruction;  nature  has  connected 
a  refined  intellectual  pleasure  with  the  healthful  exercise 
of  tlie  faculties;  curiosity  of  the  desire  of  knowledge, 
and  the  love  of  the  beautiful  and  the  wonderful,  are  the 
great  actuating  principles  of  early  childhood,  and  their 
gratification  is  always  accompanied  by  pleasurable 
emotions.  Unnatural  modes  of  instruction  give  rise  to 
harsh  and  vitiating  modes  of  discipline. 

7.  Habits  are  formed  by  the  repetition  of  the  same 
acts.  The  habits  of  attention  and  concentration  are  the 
great  main-springs  of  education.  The  habit  of  directing 
the  undivided  or  concentrated  force  of  the  faculties  to  a 
given  subject  is  never  fully  acquired  in  early  life, — 
children  love  change  and  novelty. 

8.  One  class  of  faculties  may  repose  whilst  another 
class  of  faculties  is  being  exercised. 

9.  The  faculties  are  most  vigorous  when  they  are 
exercised  voluntarily.  The  principle  of  self-dependence 
is  one  of  the  most  powerful  agents  of  culture.  Children 
have  a  natural  craving  for  knowledge  as  well  as  for 
occupation. 

10.  The  strength  of  any  faculty  and  the  desire  for 
exercising  it,  are  greater  according  as  it  has  been  more 
or  less  called  into  activity.  The  sooner  a  faculty  is 
called  into  healthful  action,  the   greater,  other  things 


INTELLECTUAL   DEVELOPMENT.  67 

bein^  the  same,  will  be  its  strength.     The  cultivation  of  ^ 
the  reasoning  faculties  should  not  be  too  long  delayed. 

11.  The  facaltieSj  in  the  course  of  their  development, 
act  and  re-act  upon  one  another.  The  complete  devel- 
opment of  any  faculty  depends,  more  or  less,  on  the 
development  of  some  other  faculty. 

The  mind  is  really  one  indivisible  substance  having 
different  states  and  modes  of  action;  these  states  and 
modes  of  action  being  called  faculties. 

Some  of  the  faculties  are  almost  simultaneous  in  their 
action  as  well  as  in  their  development. 

All  the  faculties  of  the  mind  exist  in  a  greater  or  less 
state  of  activity  at  every  stage  of  development. 

The  mind  as  a  whole  admits  of  cultivation  at  every 
stage  of  development.  The  moral  faculties  may  be  cul- 
tivated in  connection  with  the  intellectual  faculties;  and 
so  on. 

12.  For  the  purpose  of  culture,  the  faculties  may  be 
divided  into  groups  or  classes. 

13.  Our  subjects,  as  well  as  our  methods  of  instruction, 
may  be  varied  or  modified  to  suit  the  different  classes  of 
faculties. 

14.  Each  class  of  faculties  has  its  characteristic  mo- 
tives of  action  as  well  as  habits  of  action. 

15.  Each  faculty  has  a  primitive  state  corresponding 
to  its  spontaneous  development.  Primitive  judgments 
form  the  basis  of  all  our  knowledge. 

Certain  faculties  have  also  distinct  states  of  develop- 
ment correspo7iding  to  the  subjects  upon  which  they  are 
exercised.  These  states  have  an  important  bearing  on 
early  education. 

16.  All  our  knowledge  is  derived  from  three  sources, 


68  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

viz.,  Sensation^  Reflection^  and   the  Primitive  Laws  involved 
in  our  mental  operations. 

Primitive  Intelligence,  as  Shown  in  Perception 
AND  Intuition,  Considered  as  the  Basis  of  Devel- 
opment. 

There  is  a  pre-established  harmony  between  external 
nature  and  the  laws  regulating  the  operations  of  the 
mind.  Through  sensation,  or  the  impressions  derived 
from  the  senses,  the  immaterial  (the  mind)  comes  into 
contact  with  the  material,  and  springs  (through  its  own 
inherent  energies)  into  all  the  various  forms  of  devel- 
oped intelligence.  Without  sensation,  the  mind  could 
not  germinate;  and  without  the  reflex  power,  which  the 
mind  exercises  over  these  sensations,  intelligence  could 
not  exist;  but  this  is  not  all, — the  awakened  intelligence 
derives  fresh  vitality  from  the  primitive  laws  involved 
in  its  own  operations.  Hence  our  knowledge,  the 
aliment  of  intellectual  life,  is  derived  from  the  three 
following  sources:  Sensation,  Reflection,  and  Intuition, 
or  the  primitive  laws  involved  in  our  mental  opera- 
tions. 

The  infant  soul  contains  implicitly  all  the  faculties  of 
the  developed  intelligence;  reason  is  there,  with  all  its 
essential  characteristics,  but  it  is  there  only  in  its 
intuitive  form.  The  mind  intuitively  comprehends  and 
feels  the  relations  subsisting  between  itself  and  the  ex- 
ternal world,  without  being  able  at  once  to  give  its 
knowledge  anything  like  a  formal  or  abstract  expression. 
It  spontaneously  and  unconsciously  forms  primitive 
judgments  or  inferences,  recognizes  the  beautiful  and 
participates  it,  and  acts  under  the  conviction  of  certain 


INTUITIVE    PERCEPTIONS.  69 

fundamental  principles  of  belief.  All  the  materials  of 
perfect  intelligence  exist  in  these  primary  or  primitive 
intuitions,  but  they  have  to  be  reduced  to  definite  forms 
and  consistent  combinations. 

Nature  is  truly  a  revelation.  To  the  human  soul 
nature  speaks  in  an  intelligible  language,  which  thebrute 
cannot  understand.  The  brute  looks  on  nature  as  it  looks 
on  a  book, — it  sees  lights  and  shades, but  nothing  beyond; 
on  the  contrary,  the  human  intelligence  at  once  de- 
ciphers the  symbolic  characters  of  that  book.  The  val- 
idity of  our  intuitive  perceptions  must,  therefore,  be  re- 
ferred to  this  pre-constructed  harmony  between  the  soul 
and  nature. 

Our  primitive  intuitions  comprehend  judgments,  sen- 
timents, and  fundamental  principles  of  belief. 

Perception  is  the  first  stage  of  intelligence;  but  per- 
ception, regarded  as  a  distinct  stage  of  intelligence, 
involves  something  more  than  a  summation  of  sensual 
impressions.  By  perception  we  become  immediately 
conscious  of  the  qualities  of  material  objects.  Out  of  our 
perceptions  arise  certain  necessary  and  intuitive  judg- 
ments. We  perceive  the  properties  of  an  object  sepa- 
rately as  well  as  in  connection  with  the  object  consid- 
ered as  a  collective  unity,  and  thus  recognize  and  dis- 
tinguish objects  by  their  properties;  every  such  cognition, 
obviously,  involves  a  judgment;  in  point  of  fact,  a  prop- 
osition, which,  though  not  expressed,  is  not  the  less  felt 
and  understood  as  such.  We  perceive  the  physical 
qualities  of  an  object,  but  apprehend  something  more, — 
we  are  conscious  that  the  me^  the  percipient,  is  distinct 
from,  and  independent  of,  the  not  me,  or  the  thing  per- 
ceived.    The  sentiment  of  the  beautiful  is  intuitive:  we 


70  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

look  at  a  flower; — we  perceive  that  it  has  a  certain 
shape,  size,  and  color;  but  w^e  apprehend  far  more  than 
this, — the  perception  is  associated  with  pleasurable 
emotions,  and  an  indefinable  sense  of  the  beautiful  fills  the 
soul.  We  listen  to  an  exquisite  piece  of  music; — we 
have  a  perception  of  tone  and  time,  but  along  with  this 
we  have  the  perception  of  harmony.  The  moral  and  re- 
ligious sentiments  are  intuitive;  the  virgin  simplicity  of 
a  child's  moral  nature  is  too  apparent  to  require  illustra- 
tion; education  too  often  blights  this  original  simplicity. 
Our  intuitive  sentiments  involve  some  of  the  deepest 
thoughts  and  principles  of  our  existence. 

Our  primitive  judgments  or  intuitive  perceptions  are, 
of  all  our  forms  of  intelligence,  the  most  vivid  and  com- 
prehensive. They  give  us  all  the  elements  of  our  subse- 
quent knowledge,  not  in  signs,  or  abstract  representa- 
tions, but  immediately,  in  our  self-consciousness.  They 
are  universal  and  invariable,  for  they  are  found  as  well 
in  the  savage  as  in  the  civilized  man.  They  are  neces- 
sary and  absolute;  for  to  be  different  from  what  they 
are  is  impossible.  They  are  formed  spontaneously  and 
intuitively;  that  is  to  say,  anterior  to  and  irrespective 
of  any  reflective  processes;  they  are  unreflective  because 
they  are  spontaneous,  and  spontaneous  because  they 
flow  directly  from  the  prinieval  harmony  existing  be- 
tween the  material  and  spiritual  worlds.  They  embody 
all  our  experience;  that  is,  experience  in  its  most  com- 
prehensive sense. 

Our  experience  (according  to  the  usual  acceptation  of 
the  term)  comprehends  the  knowledge  derived  from  sen- 
sation and  reflection;  but  does  our  knowledge  stop  here? 
We  roust  be  careful  that  we  do  not  leave  out  some  ele- 


INTUITIVE   PERCEPTIONS.  71 

ment  of  t)ie  inquiry,  and  then  repair  the  mutilation  by 
arbitrary  inventions.  The  fact  is,  all  knowledge  legins 
with  experience,  but  it  does  not  end  with  experience. 
There  are  certain  intuitive  principles  of  belief,  as  well 
as  certain  primitive  judgments,  such  as  the  relation  of 
cause  and  effect,  which  cannot  be  derived  from  experi- 
ence. Let  us  propose  the  question: — What  is  our  prim- 
itive impression  relative  to  causation?  Do  we  regard  it 
simply  as  a  relation  of  succession,  of  antecedent  and  con- 
sequent, or  something  more  ?  Now  the  relation  of  suc- 
cession, which  is  really  derived  from  experience,  is  a 
very  different  thing  from  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect. 
When  we  say  that  fire  melts  wax,  we  mean  something 
more  than  that  the  phenomenon  of  fluidity  succeeds  the 
phenomenon  of  the  contact  of  fire;  in  fact,  we  believe 
that  there  is  some  active  principle  in  the  fire  which  pro- 
duces the  fluidity.  Again,  our  acts  are  not  only 
sequences  to  the  operation  of  the  will, — we  regard  them 
(from  the  primitive  laws  of  our  mental  operations)  as 
the  direct  effects  of  our  volitions.  Thus,  every  act  of 
attention  is  voluntary,  but  every  voluntary  act  is  char- 
acterized by  the  circumstance  that  we  consider  ourselves 
as  the  responsible  cause  of  it.  A  cause,  therefore,  is  not 
merely  an  antecedent  to  a  phenomenon,  it  is  something 
more;  it  possesses  an  active  productive  power;  we  can- 
not escape  the  conclusion,  for  it  is  involved  in  our  men- 
tal existence.  To  adduce  any  further  illustrations  of  the 
nature  of  our  fundamental  principles  of  belief  is  unnec- 
essary; enough  has  been  said  to  render  manifest  the 
general  truth, — that  they  are  based  on  the  laws  which 
the  Creator  has  established. 

Every  branch  of  knowledge  must  pass  through  the 


72  PHILOSOPHY   OF    EDUCATION. 

intuitive  before  it  can  reach  the  abstract  form;  that  is, 
the  form  of  abstract  representation.  There  is  a  reality, 
a  depth,  an  exhaustlessness,  in  our  primitive  knowledge, 
but  it  is  vague  and  undefined;  it  must  become  ohjeetified 
before  it  can  become  definite;  it  must  be  fixed  in  the 
representative  form  of  language  before  it  can  become  an 
element  of  exact  science. 

Such  is  the  primitive  intelligence, — the  intelligence  of 
perception  and  intuition.     We  now  enter  upon  a  new 
and  broader  platform  of  development.     Hitherto  all  our 
cognitions  have  been  immediate;  that  is  to  say,  they  have 
flowed  directly  from  the  sensations  derived  from  con- 
crete things;  now  the  faculties  of  memory,  conception, 
and  representation  come  into  active  play,  and  create  a 
new  world  of  cognitions,  at  once  spiritual  and  material, 
— the  world  of  ideas,  of  signs,  and  representations.   The 
facts  of  perception  are  no  longer  idealized  impressions, 
existing,  as  it   were,  only  subjectively,  or   in  our  con- 
sciousness; they  now  assume  the  representative  form  of 
lnnguage,which  is  a  symbolical  representation  of  though*, 
whereby  we  give  a  sort  of  independent  and  external  ex- 
istence to  the  results  of  mental  operations.     The  mind 
translates  all  its  primitive  judgments  into  language,  and 
the   judgments   so  symbolized  are  called   propositions. 
Primitive   propositions   (like  primitive  judgments)  ex- 
press   the    relations    of    concrete    things.      Language 
ex[)resses  our  primitive  judgments  first  in   the  form  of 
primitive  propositions;  but  by  the  aid  of  the  faculty  of 
abstraction,  these  judgments  are  gradually  generalized, 
and  then  the  corresi)onding  propositions  become  general 
and  abstract.     Again,  by  the  faculty  of  abstraction,  we 
separate  the  elements  of  a  proposition  in  order  to  con- 


Intuitive  perceptions.  IS 

sider  them  separately;  these  elements  are  abstract  ideas. 
Thus,  in  the  development  of  the  understanding,  we  be- 
gin with  judgment;  then  follow  propositions;  and  last  of 
all  we  have  abstract  ideas;  judgments  are  formed  by  the 
faculty  of  judgment,  one  of  the  original  functions  of  the 
mind. 

We  have  observed  that  primitive  judgments  expressed 
in  language  are  called  propositions,  or  it  may  be  axioms. 
Now  it  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  these  abstract 
representative  forms  involve  nothing  more  than  what  is 
contained  in  the  primitive  forms.  When  you  tell  a  child 
(with  your  ^'  subject,  copula,  and  predicate  ")  that  "A 
rose  is  beautiful,"  you  tell  him  nothing  but  what  he  pre- 
viously knew  and  apprehended  in  the  form  of  a  primi- 
tive judgment;  that  is  what  you  really  do, — you  show 
him  how  to  express  his  primitive  judgments  in  language, 
and  thereby  show  him  how  he  may  give  fixedness  and 
precision  to  his  intuitive  cognitions;  that  is,  how  he  may 
give  to  his  silent  thoughts  and  emotions  "a  local  habita- 
tion and  a  name." 

The  law  regulating  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  is 
this:  we  cognize  the  concrete  before  the  abstract,  the 
concrete  being  the  simple,  the  abstract  the  difficult. 
Primitive  judgments  formed  in  connection  with  the  sen- 
sations derived  from  concrete  things,  precede  abstract 
representations  arid  processes  requiring  the  exercise  of 
abstract  judgment  and  reason.  A  child  judges  of  the 
color  of  an  object  before  he  has  formed  any  abstract 
idea  of  color;  he  judges  of  the  relation  of  numbers  be- 
fore he  has  any  idea  of  number  apart  from  its  concrete 
representations;  he  judges  of  form  before  he  has  any 
cognition  of  the  abstract  definitions  of  form,  and  so  on. 


Y4  PHILOSOPHY    OP   EDUCATION. 

Primitive  judgments  form  the  basis  of  all  our  knowl- 
edge, whether  of  abstractions  or  of  processes  of  reason- 
ing. An  axiom  is  an  abstract  expression  of  a  primitive 
judgment  fonned  in  relation  to  the  perception  of  actual 
objects;  tliese  judgments  exist  in  the  mind  and  form  the 
subjects  of  pertec^t  cognition  before  they  are  regarded 
in  their  axiomatic  furm.  Thus,  for  example,  a  child 
would  not  understand  you,  if  you  were  to  tell  him  that 
two  and  three  make  five  in  consequence  of  the  axiom, 
that  the  whole  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  its  parts;  but  he 
would  think  and  reason  in  accordance  with  it,  if  three 
objects  and  two  objects  were  placed  before  him  in  order 
that  he  might  ascertain  their  sum. 

Primary  education  begins  with  the  culture  of  our  in- 
tuitive perceptions;  this  culture  chiefly  consists  in  afford- 
ing occasions  and  stimulants  for  their  development,  and 
in  fixing  them  in  the  mind  by  means  of  representative 
language;  this  is  what  we  mean  by  the  cultivation  of  the 
perceptive  faculties.  Hence  object  lessons,  picture  les- 
sons, etc.,  constitute  the  best  forms  of  early  culture. 

To  enlarge  on  this  subject,  at  present,  is  unnecessary; 
enough  has  been  said  to  render  manifest  the  general 
truth, — that  the  young  mind,  at  every  stage  of  its  devel- 
opment, is  more  or  less  influenced  by  the  culture  of  the 
primitive  or  perceptive  faculties. 

Classification  of  the  Faculties  of  the  Mind. 

The  mindhm  intellect,  feeling,  and  will.  We  think, 
we  feel,  we  act,  that  is  to  say,  we  have  thoughts  and 
feelings,  and  we  have  also  the  power  of  controlling  our 
thoughts  and  feelings.  Hence  our  internal  phenomena 
comprehend  intellect,  feelings  or  emotions,  and  will. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    FACULTIES.  15 

The  ideal  type  of  the  human  soul  (the  image  of  God) 
consists  in  the  full  and  harmonious  development  of  these 
three  elements;  the  intellect,  in  this  perfect  state  of  de- 
velopment, is  characterized  by  freedom  of  thought; 
the  emotions  by  benevolence  or  love;  and  the  will  by 
unrestricted  power.  Under  proper  culture  (with  the 
blessing  of  God>,  the  soul  gradually  assimilates  itself  to 
this  perfect  state  of  development.  It  is  true,  that  in  the 
present  world  we  may  never  reach  this  ideal  state  of 
development,  nevertheless  we  may  be  constantly  tending 
towards  it. 

The  strength  and  activity  of  a  faculty  depend  on  the 
force  of  the  will  which  animates  it;  and  in  like  manner, 
the  character  of  our  emotions  is  determined  by  the 
active  force  of  the  will.  If  we  want  to  ascertain  the 
stage  of  development  of  the  intellectual  and  moral  fac- 
ulties, we  must  look  to  the  state  of  the  will  as  regards 
its  freedom :  this  is  the  true  index  to  all  the  other  ope- 
rations of  the  mind.  In  infancy,  when  the  faculties  are 
feeble,  there  is  little  or  no  voluntary  power;  the  mind  is 
chiefly  governed  by  instincts  or  intuitions.  On  the 
other  hand,  as  we  acquire  more  and  more  intellectual 
and  moral  power,  so  we  gain  more  and  more  force  of 
will.  Our  acts  (intellectual  as  well  as  moral)  are  deter- 
mined by  actuating  principles;  that  is  to  say,  by 
motives,  by  habits,  and  by  instincts.  Our  force  of  will 
and  thought  is  evidenced  by  the  character  of  our  actuat- 
ing principles. 

Four  Distinct  Stages  of  Development. 
There  are  four  phrases  in  our  language  which  have 
reference   to   four   characteristic   or  distinct  stages  of 
mental  activity:  1  perceive  the  thin^;  I  have  a  conception 


76  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

of  the  thing;  I  know  or  understand  the  thing;  and  I  can 
prove  the  thing.  The  faculties  called  into  operation  in 
the  first  act  may  be  named  the  perceptive  faculties; 
those  in  the  second,  the  conceptive  or  representative 
faculties;  in  the  third,  the  knowing  faculties,  or  the 
faculties  of  the  understanding;  and  in  the  fourth,  the 
reasoning  faculties.  These  four  classes  of  faculties 
characterize  four  distinct  stages  of  intellectual  develop- 
ment. Co-ordinate  with  these  four  intellectual  stages 
we  have  also  four  distinct  stages  of  development  of  the 
emotions  and  will.  The  first  intellectual  stage  is  marked 
by  a  maximum  of  sensibility  with  a  minimum  force  of 
will;  the  second  by  a  diminution  of  sensibility  with  an 
increase  of  the  force  of  will;  the  third,  by  a  further 
diminution  of  sensibility,  with  a  further  increase  of  the 
force  of  will;  and  the  fourth  by  a  minimum  of  sensibility 
with  a  maximum  force  of  will.  These  four  stages,  then, 
respectively  comprehend  the  condition  of  the  intellect, 
the  emotions,  and  the  will;  that  is,  of  the  whole  mind. 
All  the  functions  of  the  mind,  more  or  less  developed, 
exist  in  these  different  stages;  at  the  same  time  it  must 
be  understood  that  one  stage  gradually  merges  into  that 
which  succeeds  it.  These  stages  of  development  sepa- 
rately exist  under  a  condition  of  transition  and  assimila- 
tion. The  commencement  of  each  is  marked  by  the  birth 
of  a  new  faculty  which  had  previously  existed  only  in  a 
latent  or  embryo  form.  They  are  distinguished  from 
one  another  by  the  ])eculiar  activity  of  the  faculty  which 
characterizes  each;  and  they  are  mutually  connected  by 
the  necet^sity  of  a  certain  amount  of  simultaneous  action 
and  development.* 

*The  following  mode  of  representation  may  aid  the  conception  in  real- 
izing the  mutual  relations  of  these  stages  of  development. 
Human  intelligence,  in  Its  different  forms  of  development,  is  interni^- 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   FACULTIES. 


11 


The  classification  of  the  intellectual  and  moral  faculties 
here  proposed,  is  distinctly  exhibited  in  the  following 
tabular  forms. 

I.     Classification  of  the  Faculties  of  the  Mind  as 
A  Whole. 


StagM  of 
Development. 

The  Intellectual  Facul- 

ti»B. 

The  Moral  Faculties. 

The  Feelings. 

The  Will. 

1st  Stage. 

The    Perceptive 
Faculties. 

Passive    emotions 
and  sentiments. 

Instinct  and  pas- 
sions with  little 
voluntary  power. 

2d  Stage. 

The   Conceptive 
or  Representa- 
tive faculties. 

Sentiments,  active 
emotions.and  af- 
fections. 

Instincts  and  pas- 
sions with  some 
voluntary  power. 

3d  Stage. 

The  Knowing  fa- 
culties, or  the 
faculties  of  the 
understanding 

Affections      more 
enlarged  and  ac- 
tive. 

Considerable  force 
of  Will. 

4th  Stage. 

The    Reasoning 
faculties. 

Benevolence       or 
Love. 

Freedom  of  Will. 

dlate  between  the  animal  organism,  the  zero  of  intelligence,  and  the 
infinite.  Between  the  zero  of  intelligence  and  the  infinite  there  are  four 
ascending  stages,  respectively  continuous,  but  each  joined  to  the  one 
which  succeeds  it  by  an  abrupt  line  of  connection  indicating  the  explicit 
deve!  opment  of  a  new  power.  At  each  step  of  the  ascent,  we  approach 
the  infinite  and  recede  from  the  zero.  At  the  base  of  these  four  ascend- 
ing stages  or  platforms  of  development,  we  place  the  line  which  marks  the 
level  of  the  animal  organism.  Ascending  from  this  base  line,  we  have  the 
first  stage  of  development,  which  marks  the  region  of  intuition:  somewhat 
abruptly  this  stage  connects  itself  with  the  second  stage  of  development, 
which  marks  the  region  of  representation,  and  so  on,  until  we  arrive  at 
the  most  elevated  stage  of  human  development,  the  region  of  thought  and 
reflection,  which  continually  approaches  the  line  of  infinite  elevation 
without  ever  reaching  it.  However  high  human  intelligence  may  rise  in 
region  of  thought,  it  must  always  be  infinitely  removed  from  the  infinite 
intelligence,  the  image  of  God ;  but  the  first  stage  of  human  intelligence 
in  its  descent  approaches  nearer  and  nearer,  until  it  is  indefinitely  near 
to  the  zero  of  intelligence,  the  animal  organism. 


78 


PUILOSUPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 


II.    Classification  of  the  Intellectual  Faculties. 


SUgw  of 
Development. 

Characteristic  Cla«i  of 
Facultiee. 

General    Character  of 
each   Clag.. 

Individaal    Faculties    in  each 
Class. 

1st  Stage. 

Tlie    rerceptive 
faculties. 

Intuitive. 

Sensation.  Perception. 
Attention.  Observa- 
tion. Retention.  Pri- 
mitive  judgment  or 
intuitive  perception. 

2(1  Stage. 

The    Conceptive 
orllepresenta- 
tive  faculties. 

Representative. 

Memory.  Imitation. 
Conception.  Imagin- 
ation. Association. 
Recollection.  Repre- 
sentation as  exhibit- 
ed in  language.  Pri-j 
mitive  judgment  as- 
sociated with  con- 
ception. 

3d  Stage. 

The  Knowing  fa- 
culties, or  the 
faculties  of  the 
Understand- 
ing. 

Cognitive. 

Abstraction.  Classifi- 
cation. Generaliza- 
tion. Explicit  com- 
parison, composi- 
tion, and  analysis. 
Judgment,  etc. 

4th  Stage. 

The     Reasoning 
faculties. 

(Cogitative. 

Reason  as  exercised 
in:  Demonstration; 
Induction;  Explicit 
Observation,  Reflec- 
tion ;  Speculative 
thhiking,  etc. 

Explanatory  Remarks. 

First  Stage. — Here  the  charac  teristic  faculty  is  per- 
ception; but  all  the  faculties  of  intelligence  must  exist 
rudimentally  or  implicitly  in  this  stage  of  mental  phe- 
nomena. The  chief  motive  principles  are  instinct  ;nul 
intuition;  yet  at  the  same  time  it  must  be  observed  that 
there  cannot  be  the  slightest  consciousness  of  a  sensation 
without  an  act  of  attention,  that  is,  without  some  activ- 
ity of  will,     On  the  whole,  our  mental  phenomena,  at 


fSETENTION. MEMORY.  t^ 

this  stage,  are  characterized  by  sensibility  and  senti- 
ment, rather  than  by  thought  and  reflection. 

Observation  is  a  compound  faculty  comprehending 
(more  or  less  according  to  circumstances)  Discernment, 
Comparison,  Composition,  and  Implicit  Abstraction. 
Observation  may  be  either  implicit  or  explicit;  that  is, 
it  may  be  to  a  great  extent  an  unconscious  act  of  the 
mind,  or  it  may  be  in  the  highest  sense  a  voluntary  act, 
performed  from  a  preconcerted  plan  and  for  the  attain- 
ment of  a  specific  and  defined  object.  In  the  latter  sense, 
observation  is  decidedly  a  faculty  of  reason;  in  the 
former  sense  it  belongs  to  the  perceptive  class  of 
faculties. 

Primitive  Judgment  is  the  faculty  of  judgment  in  its 
first  or  primitive  form,  by  the  exercise  of  which  the 
child  at  once  cognizes  simple  truths  or  intuitive  propo- 
sitions. Observation  and  Primitive  Judgment  may  be 
regarded  as  the  rudimental  or  embryo  forms  of  Reason. 

Retention  is  the  primitive  or  rudimentary  form  of 
memory.  With  a  slight  effort  of  will  the  prominent 
features  of  an  impression  are  retained  in  the  mind;  this 
power  we  have  called  retention:  but  after  the  impres- 
sion bas  entirely  faded  from  the  mind  it  is  revived  or 
recalled  by  the  power  of  memory.  By  attention  the 
mind  lays  hold  of  sensational  impressions,  idealizes  them, 
and  fixes  them  in  the  soul  in  the  form  of  primitive 
knowledge.  Strictly  speaking,  we  do  not  retain  the 
sensational  impression,  but  only  those  prominent  portions 
of  it  to  which  the  attention  has  been  most  powerfully 
directed,  and  which  the  mind  has  idealized,  or  made,  as 
it  were,  part  of  itself.  We  look  intently  at  a  striking 
object, — we  close  our  eyes;  the  image  of  the  object  is 


80  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

retained  in  the  mind,  not  by  a  conscious  effort  of  will,  or 
by  an  ordinary  act  of  memory,  but  by  a  power  some- 
what resembling  it.  The  products  of  sensations,  consti- 
tuting the  results  of  experience,  soon  find  a  lodgment  in 
our  mental  treasury,  and  of  their  existence  the  mind  be- 
comes conscious  whenever  similar  sensations  are  pre- 
sented. The  recurrence  of  the  same  sensation  gradually 
gives  rise  to  the  power  of  consciously  recalling  it. 

In  this  stage,  external  phenomena  and  their  relations 
are  viewed,  less  as  subjects  of  thought  than  as  objects  of 
sentiment  and  feeling:  the  mind,  standing,  as  it  were,  face 
to  face  with  the  objects  of  perception,  is  necessarily  more 
engaged  with  the  contemplation  of  the  objects  them- 
selves than  with  its  own  self-consciousness;  hence  the 
mind  is  more  sensual  than  reflective.  Now  a  new  class 
of  faculties,  memory  and  conception,  are  about  to  play 
their  part  in  the  mental  history,  and  to  draw  the  mind 
more  away  from  the  dominion  of  mere  sensational  im- 
pressions: We  now  pass  from  the  sphere  of  perception 
and  intuition  to  that  of  conception  and  representation. 

Second  Stage. — Here  the  first  faculty  to  be  considered 
is  memory.  We  exercise  this  faculty  when  we  recall 
ideas  or  intuitions  with  the  full  and  distinct  consciousness 
of  connection  between  the  type  and  the  antitype.  At- 
tention, as  a  decidedly  voluntary  power,  now  exercises 
the  most  powerful  influences  in  the  development  of  the 
other  faculties.  We  look  intently  at  an  object  of  beauty ; 
a  sensation  is  produced,  the  attention  is  aroused:  we 
look  again  at  the  object  and  examine  all  its  prominent 
features,  as  well  in  their  relations  to  one  another  as  in 
their  relations  to  the  object  as  a  whole;  we  idealize  the 
sensation,  that  is,  we  throw  it  into  a  form  suited  to  our 


CONCEPTION.  81 

apprehension:  here  the  mental  operations  involved  in  the 
act  of  perception  enable  us  readily  to  recall  the  image 
we  have  consciously  constructed.  Strictly  speaking, 
memory  is  a  repetition  of  a  mental  operation  accompanied 
with  the  consciousness  of  its  prior  existence;  what  we 
recall  is  simply  the  product  of  the  mind's  operations. 
When  we  remember  a  thing,  we  reproduce  the  mental 
operations  connected  with  the  immediate  perception  of  it. 
The  next  faculty  to  be  considered  is  conception.  In 
every  act  of  memory  the  image  which  is  recalled  is 
always  connected,  in  our  consciousness,  with  the  actual 
impression  which  had  been  previously  produced  by  the 
object:  but  this  image  may  become  so  idealized  that  we 
at  length  lose  sight  of  its  connection  with  the  original 
impression ;  in  fact,  the  idea,  apart  from  the  object  itself, 
may  become  a  distinct  object  of  consciousness  and  con- 
templation: this  mental  process  is  called  conception. 
The  peculiar  function  of  conception  is  to  store  the  mind 
with  ideas  formed  out  of  our  immediate  perceptions,  by 
aid  of  attention  and  memory.  This  accumulation  of  ideas 
tends  to  elevate  the  mind  more  and  more  above  the  in- 
fluence of  external  impressions;  to  give  the  mind  a  more 
independent  existence;  to  engage  it  more  in  the  con- 
templation of  the  world  of  its  own  creation, — the  world 
of  conceptions  and  inward  representations.  Imagina- 
tion is  a  higher  kind  of  conception;  the  latter  is  r&pro- 
ductive,  the  oih^v productive  or  creative.  Imagination  com- 
bines and  modifies  our  conceptions  of  existing  things  in 
such  a  way  as  to  produce  a  purely  ideal  or  fictitious 
representation.  Conception  is  something  more  than 
memory  on  the  one  hand,  and  something  less  than  imag- 
ination on  the  other. 


82  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

The  faculty  of  association  mow  gives  us  a  new  power 
over  our  mental  operations, — it  gives  order  and  arrange- 
ment to  our  ideas  and  conceptions,  and  enables  us  to 
represent  them  by  signs  and  symbols.  By  the  faculty 
of  association,  certain  sounds  and  written  signs  become 
suggestive  of,  or  associated  with,  certain  ideas;  the  name 
of  a  thing,  for  example,  whether  spoken  or  written,  be- 
comes associated  with  the  conception  or  idea  of  the 
thing,  so  that  the  presence  of  the  one  suggests  that  of 
the  other.  But  we  arrive  at  this  result  progressively. 
The  origin  of  language  gives  us  the  origin  and  natural 
history  of  the  faculty  of  representation.  Our  first  out- 
ward signs  of  ideas  are  gestures;  a  nod  is  the  represen- 
tation of  an  affirmation;  a  shake  of  the  head,  of  a  nega- 
tion, and  so  on.  Our  natural  wants  are  also  indicated 
by  characteristic  gestures.  Sounds  imitative  of  the 
peculiar  cries  of  animals  are  taken  as  the  signs  of  the 
idea  of  those  animals.  Our  natural  expressions  of  pleas- 
ure, pain,  surprise,  etc.,  also  readily  become  the  symbols 
of  the  mental  states  which  they  indicate.  Spoken  lan- 
guage naturally  comes  before  written  language;  a  child 
perceives  a  particular  object;  we  point  to  it  and  express 
its  name;  the  process  is  repeated  until  at  length  the 
idea  of  the  subject  and  the  name  of  it  are  inseparably 
associated  in  the  child's  mind.  A  child  interprets  a  life- 
like picture  as  we  do  a  book;  he  reads  in  that  picture  the 
history  of  the  acts,  passions,  and  habits  of  the  creatures 
represented.  Picture  writing  is  the  next  obvious  stage  in 
the  representation  process,  and  it  is  not  difiicult  to  con- 
ceive how  the  pictorial  process  of  representation  would 
gradually  merge  into  a  purely  symbolic  representation. 
A  written   language,  then,  composed  of  arbitrary  syra- 


ABSTRACTION.  83 

bolic  characters,  is  the  highest  evidence  of  the  free 
exercise  of  the  representative  faculty.  It  completely 
objectifies  our  ideas,  and  gives,  as  it  were,  a  twofold  exis- 
tence to  the  products  of  thought.  Words  and  ideas 
exercise  a  reciprocal  influence  on  each  other;  the  visible 
representation  suggests  its  corresponding  idea,  and  the 
idea  suggests  its  corresponding  representation. 

By  the  faculty  of  recollection  we  retain  words,  and, 
through  them,  reproduce  the  ideas  which  they  sym- 
bolize. 

Third  Stage. — Language  not  only  enables  us  to  ex- 
press our  ideas  by  signs  or  words,  but  it  further  enables 
us  to  express  the  various  relations  which  these  ideas  bear 
to  one  another,  that  is  to  say,  it  enables  us  to  express 
our  judgments  in  the  form  of  propositions.  This  is  a 
step  in  advance  of  the  foregoing  stage  of  development. 
Now  we  have  to  express  our  primitive  judgments,  em- 
bodying all  the  results  of  our  experience,  in  the  form  of 
propositions;  but,  besides  this,  we  have  to  classify,  ex- 
tend, and  generalize  these  judgments,  and  to  express 
them  in  the  form  of  general  or  abstract  propositions. 
The  faculties  of  abstraction,  classification,  and  general- 
ization, which  have  been  hitherto  only  incidentally  and 
implicitly  exercised,  must  now  be  methodically  and 
explicitly  brought  to  bear  upon  the  materials  of  knowl- 
edge. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  abstraction,  viz.,  mediate  and 
immediate.  In  mediate  abstraction,  we  compare  the 
qualities  of  different  objects,  reject  their  differences  in 
order  to  fix  upon  their  resemblances,  and  from  these 
resemblances  we  derive  a  general  or  abstract  idea.  In 
immediate  abstraction,  we  compare  the  parts  or  qualities 


84  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

of  a  single  object;  eliminating  and  neglecting  the  indi- 
vidual and  variable  parts,  we  disengage  the  general  and 
invariable  part,  and  give  it  the  form  of  an  abstract  or 
general  idea.  In  both  cases  the  end  proposed  is  the 
derivation  of  a  general  idea;  this  general  idea,  being 
fixed  and  expressed  by  a  term,  will  be  henceforth  used 
as  a  common  sign  of  a  complete  class  of  phenomena. 
The  mind,  by  fixing  its  attention  on  abstract  words,  or 
general  terms,  as  the  signs  of  ideas,  disengages  itself 
from  the  minor  details  involved  in  the  contemplation  of 
the  concrete  world. 

Having  gained  a  new  store  of  abstract  and  general 
terms,  we  express  our  judgments  in  those  terms,  and 
thus  derive  abstract  propositions.  We  compare  abstract 
terms  with  each  other,  so  as  to  determine  their  agree- 
ment or  disagreement;  we  analyze  propositions  express- 
ing our  judgments,  and  put  the  elements  together  in 
another  form  better  suited  to  our  apprehension.  These 
mental  operations  indicate  that  we  have  passed  into  a 
higher  region  of  thought,  and  that  we  have  arrived  at  an 
altitude  of  development  which  gives  us  a  wider,  a  more 
exact,  and  a  less  obstructed  range  of  view  than  we  had 
at  the  anterior  period  of  development. 

Fourth  Stage. — Being  provided  with  the  great  in- 
strument of  thought — language — reason  now  freely 
expands  itself;  it  wings  its  ways  into  every  region  of 
inquiry  in  search  of  truth;  it  methodizes  all  its  materials 
of  thought,  and  proceeds  to  investigate  truth  according 
to  certain  definite  and  explicit  modes;  it  lays  down  cer- 
tain self-determined  principles  of  action,  and  suborns  to 
itself  all  the  other  operations  of  the  mind;  with  a  pene- 
trating and  comprehensive  glance,  it  looks  back  upon 


ESSENTIAL   POINTS    IN    METHOD.  86 

all  the  processes  of  thought  through  which  it  has  passed, 
and  links  the  past  with  the  present,  and  the  present  with 
the  future.  Reason,  in  this  condition  of  freedom,  is  not 
merely  cognitive,  it  is  also  cogitative;  it  not  merely 
seeks  knowledge,  but  it  also  seeks  to  discover  the 
sources  of  knowledge; — it  endeavors  to  penetrate  truth 
to  its  very  centre, — to  trace  truth  to  its  origin,  history, 
and  consequences. 

Inductive  reasoning  leads  us  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
general  laws  of  nature;  deductive  reasoning  enables  us 
to  tell  the  antecedents  of  any  given  phenomenon,  and  to 
foretell  its  consequents.  By  abstract  or  speculative  rea- 
son we  attain  a  knowledge  of  universal  truths^  embracing 
alike  the  laws  which  govern  the  operations  of  nature, 
and  the  operations  of  thought.  Our  intelligence  is  now 
much  higher  in  the  scale  of  development,  than  that 
which  we  characterized  by  conception  and  understand- 
ing; it  contains  the  ideality  of  the  one  combined  with 
the  exactness  of  the  other;  it  embodies  all  the  anterior 
developments  in  one  harmonious,  definite  unity; — in 
short,  it  is  complete  freedom  of  thought  under  the  con- 
dition of  law  and  responsibility. 

Essential  Points  to  be  considered  in  relation  to 
Method  as  applied  to  Education. 

I.  The  nature  of  the  faculties. 

II.  The  subjects  best  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of 
each  class  of  faculties. 

III.  The  nature  of  the  motives  acting  on  each  class  of 
faculties. 

lY.  The  habits  of  action  to  be  established  in  relation 
to  ^ach  class  of  faculties, 


86  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

V.  The  methods  of  instruction  adapted  to  each  class 
of  faculties. 

VI.  Application  of  results  to  the  different  periods  of 
education. 

I.  Nature  of  the  Faculties. 

The  nature  of  the  faculties  may  be  viewed  under  the 
following  aspects: — 

1.  The  peculiar  function  of  each  faculty. 

2.  Mutual  relation  of  the  faculties. 

3.  Classification  of  the  faculties  with  respect  to  their 
simultaneous  cultivation. 

1.  The  Peculiar  Function  of  each  Faculty. 

What  we  have  further  to  adduce  relative  to  the  nature 
of  each  faculty,  has  a  special  bearing  on  method  as  ap- 
plied to  education. 

It  has  been  observed  that  reason  and  other  faculties 
of  thought,  exist  in  a  rudimentary  form  at  the  very 
earliest  stages  of  development;  but  there  is  a  period  in 
our  intellectual  growth  when  these  faculties  attain  cer- 
tain definite  or  explicit  stages  of  development.  So  far 
as  regards  the  purpose  of  elementary  education,  it  may 
be  asssumed  that  each  faculty  may  exist  in  two  distinct 
states  of  development,  viz.,  in  its  first  or  simple  form  of 
development,  or  in  its  latest  or  complex  form.  What, 
then,  are  the  characteristics  of  these  two  states  ? 

Certain  faculties  may  exist  in  distinct  and  determinate 
states  of  development^  depending  for  the  most  part  on  the 
nature  of  the  subject  of  instruction ;  that  is  to  say,  whether  the 
subject  be  concrete  or  abstract. 

In  general  a  faculty  will  exist  either  in  a  simple  or  in 


FUNCTIONS    OF   THE    FACULTIES.  87 

a  complex  state,  according  as  the  subject  to  which  it  is 
directed  is  concrete  or  abstract.  Thus,  we  may  have 
either  simple  conception  or  abstract  conception;  simple 
abstraction  or  complex  abstraction;  simple  memory  or 
recollection,  ideality  or  imagination;  intuitive  reasoning 
or  abstract  reasoning,  ond  so  on.  These  faculties  at  the 
first  stage  of  their  development  have  simple  and  definite 
functions,  whereas  at  the  latest  stage  they  assume  new 
and  more  complex  functions  as  we  rise  higher  into  the 
region  of  intellection.  It  is  true  that  these  two  states 
of  development  gradually  merge  into  each  other,  accord- 
ing as  we  blend  the  two  classes  of  subjects  together. 

Conception. — Our  simplest  conceptions  are  formed  by 
the  aid  of  models  and  pictorial  representations;  abstract 
conception  is  the  conception  of  a  thing  formed  from  a 
verbal  description  of  it. 

Imagination. — This  faculty,  in  its  latest  state  of  de- 
velopment, creates  fictitious  scenes  and  events,  and  in- 
vests mere  abstractions  with  all  the  qualities  of  vital 
existence.  But  the  ideality  peculiar  to  young  children 
is  very  little  removed  from  simple  conception;  with  the 
aid  of  visible  representations  they  form  the  idea  of 
absent  objects  or  distant  scenes;  a  stick  with  a  rag  tied 
round  it  is  invested  with  all  the  qualities  of  a  living 
baby;  a  small  picture  enables  them  to  realize  the  idea  of 
an  unseen  reality;  in  this  case  the  ideal  conception  is 
formed  in  connection  with  the  concrete  representation. 

Abstraction. — A  child's  first  abstractions  are  derived 
from  a  comparative  examination  of  the  properties  of 
concrete  things:  He  forms  an  abstract  idea  of  number 
by  counting  various  familiar  objects;  he  forms  the 
abstract  conception  of  a  quadruped  by  observing  the 


88  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

fact  that  cats,  dogs,  horses,  etc.,  have  a  certain  quality 
in  common,  viz.,  four  legs  or  four  feet.  Whereas  in 
some  of  our  higher  abstractions  the  subject  undergoes  a 
process  of  intellection,  or  intellectual  elaboration,  before 
the  abstractions  are  completed.  Thus,  in  order  to 
realize  the  idea  of  a  noun,  the  child  must  frequently 
form  a  double  or  complex  abstraction ;  for  the  name  of  a 
thing  (e.  g.  bird)  is  a  noun,  not  the  thing  itself;  on  the 
other  hand,  ahorse  is  really  a  quadruped. 

Some  eminent  writers  on  education  assert  "  that  the 
faculty  of  abstraction  is  the  latest  in  the  development  of 
the  human  mind."  Now  this  is  only  true  as  regards  the 
faculty  of  complex  abstraction,  for  even  young  children 
readily  exercise  the  faculty  of  simple  abstraction. 

Ideas  of  number,  form,  magnitude,  weight,  color,  etc., 
belong  to  our  simple  abstractions;  ideas  connected  with 
our  mental  operations,  the  analysis  of  langunge,  pure 
science,  etc.,  belong  to  our  complex  abstractions. 

Reason. — A  child's  reasoning  chiefly  consists  in  mak- 
ing simple  deductions  or  inferences  from  palpable  facts 
or  from  the  relations  of  concrete  things;  whereas  renson, 
in  its  highest  form  of  development,  investigates  the 
relations  of  abstract  things.  Mental  arithmetic,  taught 
by  objects,  calls  into  activity  this  early  or  first  form  of 
reason;  physical  laws,  geometry,  etc.,  taught  in  the 
same  manner,  also  exercise  this  first  form  of  reason. 

The  peculiar  function  of  reason  is  the  investigation 
and  recognition  of  truth ;  but  in  every  process  of  reason- 
ing there  is  always  something  taken  for  granted  or 
assumed  to  be  true.  The  truths  assumed  may  be  self- 
evident  axioms,  facts  derived  from  observation  and  ex- 
periment, principles  derived  from  induction,  or  abstract 


FUNCTIONS    OF   THE    FACULTIES.  89 

propositions  which  have  been  previously  established. 
When  a  child  reasons  about  familiar  things,  or  familiar 
phenomena,  the  axioms  forming  the  basis  of  his  infer- 
ences are  not  expressed  in  an  abstract  form  of  lan- 
guage,— they  are  rather  understood  from  their  actual 
and  special  relation  to  the  subjects  or  objects;  in  fact, 
his  belief  in  these  axioms  is  of  that  silent,  unconscious, 
instinctive  kind  of  belief. 

The  simplicity  or  complexity  of  process  of  reasoning 
depends  upon,  1.  The  nature  of  the  subject;  2.  The 
method;  3.  The  nature  or  form  of  the  axiomatic  truths 
or  propositions,  as  the  case  may  be. 

1.  The  nature  of  the  subject.  The  subject  may  be 
either  concrete  or  abstract.  In  the  former  case,  other 
things  being  the  same,  our  reasoning  will  be  simple  or 
intuitive;  in  the  latter  case  abstract. 

2.  The  method  may  be  experimental,  inductive,  ten- 
tative, or  some  other  method  which  appeals  to  the  per- 
ceptive faculties;  or  it  may  be  abstract,  that  is,  the 
method  may  appeal  to  the  reflective  faculties,  and  not  to 
the  perceptive  faculties.  In  the  former  case,  other  things 
being  in  keeping,  our  reasoning  will  be  simple  or  intui- 
tive; in  the  latter  case  abstract. 

3.  The  nature  or  form  of  the  axiomatic  truths  or  pro- 
positions. These  may  be  explained  in  connection  with 
the  particular  subject,  or  they  may  be  expressed  in  the 
form  of  abstract  truths.  In  the  former  case,  other  things 
being  in  keeping,  our  reasoning  will  be  simple  or  intui- 
tive; in  the  latter  case  abstract. 

Hence  we  come  to  the  general  conclusion,  that  our 
reasoning   will   be   more  or  less   abstract   or   difficult, 


90  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

according  as  the  faculty  of  abstraction  is  more  or  less 
exercised  in  the  process. 

That  our  intellectual  faculties  may  exist  in  two  dis- 
tinct states  of  development  seems  to  have  been  over- 
looked by  teachers,  as  well  as  by  educational  writers: 
these  states,  as  we  have  endeavored  to  show,  depend  on 
the  nature  of  the  subject  to  which  the  faculty  is  directed; 
the  concrete  exercising  the  simple  form  of  the  faculty, 
and  the  abstract  the  complex  form  of  the  faculty.  The 
result  of  this  misconception  has  been  that  the  cultivation 
of  tlie  higher  faculties  has  been  too  much  neglected  in 
our  elementary  schools.  We  have  no  hesitation  in  say- 
ing that  the  higher  faculties,  in  their  first  or  simple 
forms,  may  be  healthfully  exercised  at  an  early  age.  A 
child  of  seven  years  readily  forms  simple  abstractions, 
and  reasons  clearly  about  concrete  things. 

2.  Mutual  Relation  of  the  Faculties. 

The  following  points  of  relation  are  worthy  of  consid- 
eration : — 

1.  Relation  of  succession.  2.  Relation  of  assimilation. 
3.  Relation  of  aggregation. 

1.  Relation  of  succession.  In  our  various  mental  pro- 
cesses there  is  a  natural  order  of  succession  as  regards 
the  action  of  the  faculties.  Thus,  sensation  is  followed 
by  perception;  perception  and  attention  are  followed  by 
memory  and  conception;  conception,  observation,  &c., 
by  abstraction;  and  so  on.  This  order  of  succession 
seems  to  correspond  with  the  order  of  development  as 
given  at  p.  77. 

2.  Relation  of  assimilation.  All  the  faculties  are  at 
first  feeble  and  circumscribed  as  to  their  modes  of  action, 


MUTUAL    RELATION    OF    THE    FACULTIES.  91 

but  under  proper  culture  they  gradually  gain  strength 
and  assume  new  modes  of  action.  This  growth  and  de- 
velopment is  in  many  cases  equivalent  to  the  assimi- 
lation of  one  faculty  to  another.  Thus: — attention  in- 
tensified becomes  concentration,  or  that  faculty  whereby 
we  direct  the  undivided  force  of  the  faculties  to  a  given 
subject.  Observation  intensified  and  methodized  becomes  an 
important  element  of  inductive  reasoning.  The  con- 
ception of  a  thing,  from  a  verbal  description,  is  an  ideal 
operation  nearly  allied  to  imagination.  The  conceptive 
faculties  verge  upon  the  abstract  faculties;  to  form  a 
true  and  complete  conception  of  a  complex  object  we 
must  examine  its  parts,  compare  them  with  each  other, 
and  form  a  conception  of  them  separately  as  well  as  in 
their  relations  to  the  whole.  And  so  on  to  other  fac- 
ulties. 

3.  Relation  of  aggregation.  A  complex  mental  oper- 
ation may  be  regarded  as  an  aggregation  of  certain 
simple  operations.  Each  class  of  faculties  has  a  leading 
faculty  characterizing  the  group.  Perception  is  the 
leading  or  characteristic  faculty  of  the  perceptive  facul- 
ties; conception  and  representation,  of  the  conceptive 
and  representative  faculties;  the  judgment,  of  the  know- 
ing faculties;  and  reason,  of  the  reasoning  faculties. 
Each  successive  group  may  be  regarded  as  an  aggre- 
gation of  all  the  faculties  in  the  groups  preceding  it, 
connected  with  the  faculties  peculiar  to  each  group. 

The  different  stages  of  a  faculty  depend  on  the  mode 
of  the  aggregation. 

Recollection,  or  philosophical  memory,  is  simple 
MEMORY  acting  in  conjunction  with  the  faculty  of  asso- 
ciation, and  sometimes  with  that  of  reason. 


92  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

Ideality  is  the  ideal  faculty  acting  in  conjunction 
with  the  perceptive  faculties.  Imagination  is  a  more 
ideal  kind  of  conception. 

Simple  AnsTRAcrrioN  is  the  abstractive  faculty  acting 
in  conjunction  with  the  perceptive  faculties.  Complex 
ABSTRACTION  is  the  abstrnctivc  faculty  acting  in  con- 
junction with  the  conceptive  faculties  or  the  representa- 
tive faculties,  or  with  an  abstraction  previously  formed. 

Intuitive  reason  is  the  rational  faculty  acting  in 
conjunction  with  the  perceptive  faculties,  and  it  may  be 
with  simple  abstraction.  Abstract  reason  is  the 
rational  faculty  acting  in  conjunction  with  complex 
abstraction. 

In  order  to  cultivate  any  faculty,  or  class  of  faculties, 
we  should  make  ourselves  acquainted  with  the  mode  of 
aggregation. 

3.    The  Faculties  considered  with  respect  to  their  simultaneous 
Action  and  Cultivation. 

The  connection  between  some  of  our  faculties  is  so 
close  that  we  cannot  exercise  one  without  exercising 
another.  Thus,  perception,  as  well  as  conception,  is 
almost  always  associated  with  primitive  judgment,  etc.; 
the  faculty  of  conception  cannot  be  exercised  without 
memory;  the  faculties  of  conception  and  language  are 
invariably  exercised  together, — the  conception  of  a 
thing  and  the  name  of  the  thing  are  almost  inseparable; 
the  faculties  of  abstraction  and  classification  depend 
upon  those  of  conception  and  comparison;  reaeon  and 
judgment  presuppose  the  development  of  observation, 
conception,  comparison,  abstraction,  and  language,  and 
so  on. 


SUBJECTS   FOR    CULTIVATION    OF   FACULTIES.  93 

As  many  of  our  faculties  are  almost  contemporaneous 
in  their  action,  the  cultivation  of  one  class  of  faculties 
necessarily  involves  the  cultivation  of  some  other.  To 
cultivate  any  faculty  by  itself  is  scarcely  practicable, 
and,  indeed,  if  it  were  practicable,  it  is  not  desirable.  In 
giving  a  lesson,  the  skilful  teacher  suits  his  instruction 
to  the  cultivation  of  a  series  of  faculties  having  a  mutual 
affinity. 

Each  class  of  faculties  may  be  cultivated  by  itself  or 
in  combination  with  some  other;  special  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  leading  or  characteristic  faculty  in  each 
class.  But  certain  combinations  are  more  eligible  for 
simultaneous  cultivation  than  others.  The  conceptive 
and  representative  faculties  should  be  cultivated  along 
with  the  perceptive  faculties.  Memory  depends  solely 
upon  the  activity  of  attention.  Language,  especially 
technical  and  abstract  terms,  should  be  first  taught  in 
connection  with  the  exercise  of  the  perceptive  faculties. 
Abstraction,  judgment,  and  reason,  in  the  early  states  of 
their  development,  should  be  cultivated  in  connection 
with  the  observing  or  preceptive  faculties.  The  recol- 
lective  faculty,  or  simple  memory  combined  with  the 
faculty  of  association,  should  be  cultivated  in  connection 
with  the  reasoning  faculties.  And  so  on  to  the  other 
cases.  As  a  general  rule  applicable  to  early  training, 
we  should  say  that  the  perceptive  faculties  should  form 
the  basis  of  cultivation  for  all  the  other  faculties  of  the 
mind. 

II.   The  Subjects  best  adapted  for  the  Cultivation 
OF  the  different  Faculties. 

Classification  of  subjects. — The  leading  topics  of 
school  instruction  may  be  reduced  to  five. 


94  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

1.  The  knowledge  and  application  of  facts  and  prin- 
ciples of  direct  observation,  under  which  may  be  in- 
cluded Object  Lessons,  Lessons  on  familiar  natural 
phenomena  and  natural  history,  Mental  Arithmetic, 
Drawing,  Writing,  Speaking,  Meaning  of  terms  and 
phrases,  etc. 

These  subjects  specially  cultivate  the  perceptive  fac- 
ulties, and  the  conceptive  and  representative  faculties, 
together  with  simple  abstraction  and  intuitive  reason. 

2.  The  knowledge  and  application  of  signs  and  sym- 
bols, to  which  we  may  refer  Reading,  Orthography, 
Symbolical  Arithmetic,  etc. 

These  subjects  chiefly  cultivate  the  representative 
faculties. 

3.  The  knowledge  of  facts  generally,  which  includes 
Descriptive  Geography,  Natural  History,  Narratives, 
History  (especially  of  our  own  country),  etc. 

These  subjects  especially  cultivate  the  knowing  facul- 
ties. 

4.  The  knowledge  of  general  laws  and  abstract  rela- 
tions, to  which  we  may  refer  Natural  and  Experimental 
Philosophy,  Physical  Geography,  Arithmetic,  Algebra, 
Geometry,  Grammar,  etc.  These  subjects  specially  cul- 
tivate the  reasoning  faculties. 

5.  The  knowledge  which  inculcates  sentiment  and  ex- 
cites reflection,  comprehending  General  Reading,  Poetry, 
Music,  Religion,  etc. 

These  subjects  specially  cultivate  the  imagination  and 
all  the  higher  or  reflective  faculties,  together  with  the 
moral  and  religious  sentiments. 


THE   HABITS    OF   ACTION.  95 

III.  Nature  of  the  Motives  acting  on  each  Class  of 

Faculties. 

The  most  important  motives  of  action,  so  far  as  relates 
to  intellectual  culture,  are  as  follows: — 

1.  Curiosity,  or  the  desire  for  knowledge.  2.  Love  of 
the  beautiful  and  the  wonderful.  3.  The  pleasure  con- 
nected with  the  healthful  exercise  of  the  faculties.  4. 
The  pleasure  of  success.  5.  Sympathy  and  emulation. 
6.  Desire  of  approbation.  1.  Hope  of  reward.  8.  Fear 
of  punishment.  9.  Love  of  distinction.  10.  Love  of 
truth.  11.  Sense  of  duty.  12.  The  pleasure  derived 
from  the  possession  of  knowledge  and  the  consciousness 
of  power. 

The  first  four  motives  are  specially  applicable  to  the 
cultivation  of  all  the  faculties  at  their  early  stages  of 
development;  as  far  as  regards  the  cultivation  of  the 
perceptive,  conceptive,  and  representative  faculties, 
scarcely  any  other  motives  of  action  are  necessary.  But 
the  range  of  motives  must  be  enlarged  with  the  growth 
and  development  of  the  faculties.  The  cultivation  of 
the  knowing  and  reasoning  faculties  frequently  requires 
the  aid  of  almost  every  legitimate  motive.  Motives  of 
action  should  be  varied  according  to  the  diversities  of 
intellect,  character,  and  subjects  of  instruction.  When 
one  motive  loses  its  power  another  may  be  effective. 

IV.  The  Habits  of  Action  to  be  established  in  rela- 

tion TO  each  Class  op  Faculties. 

The  most  important  habits  of  action,  so  far  as  relates 
to  intellectual  culture,  are  as  follows  :-7- 

1.  Continuous  attention.     2.  Car^ftdnofe^wvation.     3. 


■^3* 


96  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

Vivacity — Earnestness — Mental  activity — Promptitude. 
4.  Docility  — Veneration  —  Obedience — Order — Exact- 
ness. 5.  Self-reliance — Thoughtfulness — Self-culture — 
Self-examination — Self-control.  6.  Concentration — Ab- 
stractive attention — Systematic  study — Analytic  ex- 
amination— Distributive  classification  of  knowledge — 
Realization  and  self-appropriation  of  knowledge — De- 
cision of  character — Strenuous  and  laborious  application. 
1.  Reflection — Candor — Devotedness  in  the  pursuit  of 
truth — Self-dedication — The  philosophic  spirit — Correct 
thinking,  speaking,  writing,  and  feeling. 

The  first  five  habits  should  be  specially  cultivated  in 
relation  to  all  the  faculties  at  their  early  stages  of  de- 
velopment. These  habits,  however,  have  special  rela- 
tion to  the  perceptive,  imitative,  and  conceptive  facul- 
ties; but  the  range  of  habits  must  be  enlarged  with  the 
growth  and  development  of  the  faculties.  The  habits 
included  in  the  6th  group  should  be  established  in  rela- 
tion to  the  exercise  of  the  knowing  or  understanding 
faculties;  and  those  included  in  the  Vth  group  should 
be  established  in  connection  with  the  cultivation  of  the 
reasoning  faculties. 

V.  The  Methods   of  Instruction   adapted  to  each 
Class  of  Faculties. 

The  general  principles  of  Method,  contained  in  chap. 
IV.  are  more  or  less  applicable  to  the  cultivation  of  all 
the  faculties;  and  Part  II.  of  this  work  contains  specific 
methods  for  the  cultivation  of  the  different  classes  of 
faculties. 


EDUCATIONAL    PERIODS.  97 

VI.  Application  of  Results  to  the   different 
Periods   of  Education. 

Five  Educational  Periods. 

Our  early  life  may  be  divided  into  five  periods.  I. 
Infancy,  comprehending  about  four  years.  2.  Early 
childhood,  extending  from  four  to  about  seven  years  of 
age.  3.  Childhood,  extending  from  seven  to  about  ten 
years  of  age.  4.  Early  youth,  from  ten  to  about  four- 
teen years  of  age.  5.  Youth,  extending  from  the  age  of 
fourteen  to  manhood. 

First  Period.     Infancy. 

The  infant  has  first  to  acquire  the  right  use  of  his 
senses.  During  the  latter  part  of  this  period  the  per- 
ceptive faculties  attain  a  considerable  degree  of  vigor 
and  acuteness;  and  the  conceptive  and  representative 
faculties,  constituting  the  first  evidences  of  mental  exist- 
ence, also  characterize  the  later  part  of  this  period.  As 
the  brain,  the  organ  of  thought,  is  in  an  imperfect  state, 
our  instruction  should  be  entirely  of  a  desultory  charac- 
ter; we  should  wait  for  the  spontaneous  development  of 
the  faculties.  Speaking,  singing,  and  the  names  of 
familiar  objects  constitute  the  chief  subject  matters  of 
instruction. 

Second  Period.     Earhj  Childhood. 

This  period  is  marked  by  a  greater  activity  and  pre- 
cision of  the  conceptive  and  representative  faculties,  as- 
sociated to  some  extent  with  the  knowing  faculties,  and 
the  first  glimmerings  of  reason.  The  sensibilities  of  the 
child  are  also  quickened,  and  the  impressions  produced 


98  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

by  external  objects  are  deeper  and  more  lasting.  Atten- 
tion, at  first  spontaneous,  now  becomes  a  voluntary  fac- 
ulty. At  the  early  part  of  this  period,  instruction 
should  be  identified  with  amusement,  and  all  technical 
learning  should  be  carefully  excluded.  We  should  invest 
our  subjects  of  instruction  with  some  charm  calculated 
to  engage  the  feelings.  During  this  period  the  mind 
should  be  prepared  for  commencing  the  exertions  re- 
quired at  the  subsequent  period.  Without  being  techni- 
cal or  strictly  systematic,  our  subjects  of  instruction 
should  be  comprehensive,  the  exclusive  object  of  all  our 
instruction  being  the  development  of  the  faculties. 
Speaking,  singing,  object  lessons,  lessons  on  striking 
natural  phenomena,  picture  lessons,  mental  arithmetic, 
and  the  facts  of  Scripture  (life  of  Christ,  etc.),  should 
form  the  chief  subjects  of  instruction  throughout  the 
whole  of  this  period.  At  the  latter  part  of  this  period,, 
writing,  drawing,  reading,  common  arithmetic,  and 
geography  should  be  taught  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  the 
basis  of  future  instruction.  Intuitive  truths,  or  simple 
propositions,  may  also  be  taught  as  inferences  from 
familiar  facts. 

Third  Period,     Childhood. 

This  period  is  chiefly  marked  by  the  dawn  of  reason 
and  imagination,  and  the  fuller  development  of  the  fac- 
ulties of  the  understanding.  During  this  period,  the 
studies  of  the  preceding  period  should  be  extended  and 
associated  with  easy  processes  of  reasoning  and  abstrac- 
tion. The  abstract  terms  and  phrases  of  language, 
arithmetic,  geometry,  natural  science,  and  grammar, 
should  be   taught   in   connection    with   their   concrete 


EDUCATIOXAL   PERIODS.  99 

forms.  Lessons  on  general  knowledge  should  also  be 
given,  comprehending  simple  stories,  narratives,  histori- 
cal sketches,  and  descriptions  of  natural  scenery,  in 
prose  as  well  as  in  verse. 

Fourth  Period.     Early  Youth. 

Although  the  perceptive  and  conceptive  faculties  still 
maintain  their  ascendency,  yet  during  this  period  the 
understanding  and  reason  attain  a  certain  degree  of 
strength.  Reason  now  gives  strength  and  vivacity  to 
all  the  other  faculties,  and  especially  to  the  recollective 
faculty.  As  the  mind  is  now  capable  of  more  sustained 
exertion,  the  habit  of  intensified  attention,  or  the  habit 
of  directing  the  undivided  force  of  the  faculties  to  a 
given  subject,  should  form  an  important  object  of  cul- 
ture. The  subjects  of  instruction  belonging  to  the  fore- 
going period  should  be  enlarged,  and  studied  more  sys- 
tematically, yet  not  without  a  due  regard  to  the  im- 
perfect state  of  the  reflective  faculties.  Language, 
mathematics,  and  the  physical  sciences  and  useful  arts, 
should  be  specially  studied,  not  only  as  a  means  of  intel- 
lectual culture,  but  also  as  subjects  having  a  direct  bear- 
ing on  the  business  of  life. 

Fifth  Period.     Youth. 

During  this  period  all  the  faculties  of  our  nature  at- 
tain their  full  development.  Every  subject  must  now 
be  studied  in  its  most  technical  and  systematic  form; 
that  is,  supposing  the  preceding  periods  have  been  duly 
improved.  Every  study  must  now  be  pursued  with 
earnestness,  vigor,  and  determination;  and  duties,  re- 
quiring strenuous  and  continued  labor,  should  be  per- 


100  rnitOsoPHY  of  education. 

formed  with  cheerfulness  and  exactness  for  the  sake  of 
the  end  to  be  attained.  Competitive  examinations  and 
rewards  now  become  appropriate  as  well  as  powerful 
stimulants  to  exertion.  During  this  period  the  subjects 
of  study  should  have  a  special  bearing  on  the  profession 
or  business  for  which  the  youth  is  being  educated. 


CHAP.  IV. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING,  OR  ELEMENTS  OF  METHOD. 

Have  we  arrived  at  any  well  recognized  general  princi- 
ples of  method  as  applied  to  education  ?  If  so,  what 
are  they  ?  Unfortunately  the  philosophy  of  method  has 
never  yet  been  systematically  studied  by  practical 
teachers,  nor  have  its  principles  been  fairly  applied  by 
them  with  the  view  of  determinining  what  are  the  true 
general  principles  or  axioms  of  education.  However,  a 
careful  induction  of  recognized  psychological  facts  has 
led  us  to  regard  the  following  as  deserving  a  place 
amongst  those  axioms  or  general  principles.  The  un- 
settled state  of  our  knowledge  on  this  subject  will  form 
the  best  apology  for  the  imperfection,  or  it  may  be  the 
errors,  of  the  following  summary  of  general  principles. 
It  will  be  observed  that  many  of  these  princii)les  give 
different  faces  or  aspects  of  the  same  general  principle; 
such  aspects  are  essential  to  the  full  development  of  the 
subject  matter,  and  give  a  precision  and  a  distinctiveness 
to  the  different  modes  in  which  an  important  general 
principle  may  be  applied. 


GENERAL   PRINCIPLES    OF   TEACHING.  101 

I.  Our  methods  of  education  should  act  in  co-operation  with,  and 
should  form  adjuncts  to,  the  natural  order  and  mode  of  devel- 
opment of  the  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  faculties  of  the 
children  ;  in  short,  we  must  teach  children  after  the  way  by 
which  nature  intended  that  they  should  be  taught. 

This  must  comprehend  all  other  general  principles  of 
education. 

The  faculties  of  children  develop  themselves  slowly; 
one  faculty  shows  itself  before  another;  some  are  as 
active,  and  almost  as  vigorous,  in  the  child  as  they  are 
in  the  full-grown  man, — such  as  perception,  simple 
memory,  curiosity,  &c. ;  on  the  contrary,  certain  faculties 
never  attain  their  full  development  until  the  child  has 
arrived  at  the  period  of  maturity, — such  as  recollection, 
or  philosophical  memory,  imagination,  abstraction,  rea- 
son, &c. 

All  the  faculties  are  invigorated  by  being  properly 
exercised;  whereas,  on  the  other  hand,  they  may  be  en- 
feebled by  being  overtasked,  or  by  being  exercised  on 
subjects  which  do  not  come  within  their  proper  sphere. 
The  subjects  of  instruction,  as  well  as  the  methods  of 
instruction,  should  be  adapted  to  the  strength  of  the 
faculties. 

Our  business  is  not  to  destroy  any  faculty,  but  to 
follow  out  the  intentions  of  nature  in  relation  to  its  de- 
velopment;— our  business  is  not  to  create  any  faculty, 
but  to  cultivate  all  the  faculties  which  God  has  bestowed 
upon  the  child,  according  to  the  plan  or  method  which 
He  has  ordained. 

The  cultivation  of  any  faculty  should  have  a  relation 
to  the  period  at  which  it  develops  itself;  thus,  for  ex- 


102  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

ample,  the  faculty  of  observation  is  strong  in  young 
children,  that  of  abstract  reason  is  weak;  hence  we 
should  communicate  knowledge  to  young  children 
through  their  2)erceptive  faculties,  and  we  should  at  the 
same  time  be  careful  that  we  do  not  overtask  the  faculty 
of  reason.  Certain  faculties  attain  distinct  states  of 
development  corres23onding  to  the  growth  of  the  mind 
as  a  whole;  ideality,  simple  abstraction,  and  intuitive 
reason  are  developed  at  an  early  period;  whereas,  com- 
plex abstraction  and  abstract  reason  are  the  latest  in  the 
development  of  the  human  mind. 

As  a  first  condition  of  success  in  teaching,  the  master 
should  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  laws  regulat- 
ing the  development  of  the  faculties  of  the  being  to  be 
educated;  his  work  becomes  comparatively  easy  and 
pleasant  when  his  methods  of  instruction  are  framed  in 
accordance  with  these  laws. 

The  various  faculties  require  distinct  modes  of  culti- 
vation; so  that  what  may  be  requisite  for  the  develop- 
ment of  one,  may  not  be  best  adapted  for  the  develop- 
ment of  another;  one  course  of  study  may  cultivate  the 
faculty  of  recollection,  another  course  that  of  imagina- 
tion; and  so  on.  In  order,  therefore,  to  give  a  full 
elucidation  of  this  subject,  it  is  necessary  that  we  should 
consider  the  various  faculties  of  our  nature  in  detail,  with 
the  view  of  determining  the  best  modes  for  their 
respective  cultivation.  This  we  purpose  to  do  in  another 
part  of  this  work.  But  there  are  certain  general  princi- 
ples which  have  respect  to  the  development  of  the  mind 
as  a  whole,  and  these  we  purpose  to  consider  before  giv- 
ing an  account  of  the  cultivation  of  particular  faculties, 
or  particular  classes  of  faculties. 


CHIEF    OBJECT    OF    PEIMARY   EDUCATION.  103 

On  the  cultivation  of  peculiar  tempers  and  talents  of 
children,  Locke  observes:  "We  must  not  hope  wholly 
to  change  their  original  tempers,  nor  make  the  gay- 
pensive  and  grave,  nor  the  melancholy  sportive  without 
spoiling  them.  God  has  stamped  certain  characters* 
upon  men's  minds,  which,  like  their  shapes,  may  perhaps 
be  a  little  mended;  but  can  hardly  be  totally  altered 
and  transformed  into  the  contrary.  lie,  therefore,  that 
is  about  children,  should  well  study  their  natures  and 
aptitudes,  and  see  by  often  trials,  what  turn  they  easily 
take,  and  what  becomes  them;  observe  what  their  native 
stock  is,  how  it  may  be  improved,  and  what  it  is  fit  for; 
he  should  consider  what  they  want,  whether  they  be 
capable  of  having  it  w^rought  into  them  by  industry,  and 
incorporated  there  by  practice;  and  whether  it  be  worth 
while  to  endeavor  it.  For  in  many  cases,  all  that  we 
can  do,  or  should  aim  at,  is,  to  make  the  best  of  what 
nature  has  given,  to  prevent  the  vices  and  faults  to 
which  such  a  constitution  is  most  inclined,  and  give  it  all 
the  advantages  it  is  capable  of.  Every  one's  natural 
genius  should  be  carried  as  far  as  it  could;  but  to 
attempt  the  putting  another  upon  him,  will  be  but  labor 
in  vain;  and  what  is  so  plastered  on,  will  at  best  sit  but 
untowardly,  and  have  always  hanging  to  it  the  ungrace- 
fulness  of  constraint  and  affectation." 

II.  The  chief  object  of  primary  education  is  to  develop  all  the 
faculties  of  our  nature,  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral.  At 
the  same  time,  the  development  of  the  faculties  of  children  above 
a  certain  age,  should  have  a  due  regard  to  their  future  em- 
ployment in  the  present  world,  as  well  as  to  their  future  destiny 
in  the  world  to  come.  Instruction  should  be  characterized  by 
the  principle  of  utility  and  development. 


104  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

The  first  ten  years  of  a  child's  life  is  peculiarly  the 
period  of  deyelopraent.  During  this  period  the  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge  is  in  itself  a  very  secondary  object, — 
it  is  a  TMans  for  securing  a  great  end,  and  that  end  is 
Ihe  development  of  the  faculties.  No  knowledge,  however 
valuable  in  itself,  can  compensate  for  the  deadening 
influence  w  hich  its  acquisition  may  have  had  upon  the 
faculties  of  the  child;  on  the  other  hand,  no  knowledge, 
however  trifling  in  itself,  should  be  despised  which  en- 
livens and  invigorates  these  faculties. 

The  mind,  from  its  very  constitution,  seeks  to  develop 
itself.  A  boy  is  not  a  mere  recipient  of  knowledge;  his 
faculties  are  continually  developing  themselves  by  exer- 
cise. Everything  in  the  world  around  him  tends  to 
stimulate  this  development.  His  Creator  has  placed 
him  in  this  beautiful  world,  where  all  its  laws  and  phe- 
nomena tend  to  quicken,  develop,  and  elevate  his  phys- 
ical, intellectual,  and  moral  faculties.  The  creature 
should  surely  follow  out  the  intentions  of  the  Creator  ! 

But  educators,  in  the  place  of  fostering  this  develop- 
ment, have  too  frequently  directed  their  energies  to 
counteract  it, — instead  of  regarding  knowledge  as  a 
meanSy  they  have  looked  upon  it  as  an  e7id.  "  Some  pro- 
pose (observes  Woodbridge)  as  the  object  of  all  their 
efforts,  to  communicate  as  much  positive  knowledgje  as 
possible;  they  often  produce  living  encyclopaedias,  unfit 
for  useful  activity.  Others  perceive  how  little  this  ac- 
cumulation of  abstract  knowledge  avails  in  preparation 
for  active  life,  and  direct  their  attention  almost  ex- 
clusively to  matters  of  a  practical  nature.  On  this  plan, 
there  is  no  small  danger  of  producing  mere  instruments 
for  others — men  almost  incapable  of  original  thought  or 


KNOWLEDGE   A   MEANS   TO   AN   END.  105 

independent  action."  These  systems  taken  separately 
are  obviously  imperfect.  The  faculties,  as  we  have 
already  shown,  can  always  be  developed  in  harmony  with 
the  useful  nature  of  the  subjects  of  instruction,  for  what 
is  most  instructive  to  the  mind  of  the  hoy  will  generally  be 
found  to  be  the  most  useful  to  the  man;  so  that,  in  reality, 
there  is  not  necessarily  any  antagonism  between  the 
principle  of  utility  and  that  of  development.  Without 
losing  sight  of  the  importance  of  practical  knowledge, 
especially  at  the  latter  stages  of  elementary  instruction, 
the  truly  enlightened  educator  will  ever  regard  the 
development  of  the  faculties  as  the  great  end  of  all  his 
teaching;  but  from  the  various  useful  matters  of  in- 
struction, he  will  always  select  that  which  is  best  calcu- 
lated to  secure  this  end,  and  his  mode  or  system  of 
teaching  will  always  have  a  reference  to  the  same  great 
end.  The  question  with  him  will  not  be, — have  I  con- 
veyed the  greatest  amount  of  technical  knowledge  in 
the  least  possible  time  ?  have  I  engrafted  the  ideas  of 
the  men  upon  the  mind  of  the  boy  ?  but  it  will  rather 
be, — have  I  awakened  any  element  of  intellectual  or 
moral  vitality  which  had  hitherto  lain  dormant?  have  1 
invigorated  or  purified  any  faculty  which  had  hitherto 
existed  in  a  feeble,  or  in  an  imperfect  state  of  develop- 
ment? and  has  all  this  been  attained  with  a  due  regard 
to  the  future  pursuits  and  destiny  of  the  pupil  ? 

"  England  expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty."  The 
schoolmaster  has  a  sacred  duty  to  discharge  in  relation 
to  his  country, — he  has  to  educate  his  pupils  in  such  a 
way  that  they  may  be  fully  prepared  for  carrying  out 
the  work  which  she  expects  them  to  perform.  England 
has  a  great  destiny  to  fulfil;    on  her  empire   the   sun 


106  PHILOSOPHY   OF   EDUCATION. 

never  sets;  she  holds  under  her  sway  the  fairest  and 
richest  portions  of  the  glohe;  and  to  all  of  them  she  has 
to  extend  the  blessings  of  her  civilization.  What  our 
people  have  done  for  North  America,  we  have  yet  to  do 
for  South  Africa  and  Asia;  the  jungle,  the  lair  of  the 
lion  and  the  tiger,  has  to  be  converted  into  corn  fields 
and  gardens;  our  mining  appliances  have  to  be  trans- 
ported to  the  gold  fields  of  Australia;  railways,  facili- 
tating the  transport  of  material  and  produce,  have  to  be 
constructed  in  all  our  great  colonies;  and  our  various 
forms  of  machinery,  economizing  time  and  labor,  have 
to  be  established  wherever  nature  affords  facilities  and 
scope  for  their  application.  Now  which  is  the  class  of 
men  best  qualified  for  carrying  out  this  mighty  work? 
Is  it  our  classical  scholars  and  abstract  mathematicians? 
Surely  not;  we  want  men  of  heads  and  hands;  men  of 
skilled  labor,  thoroughly  conversant  with  all  our  prac- 
tical sciences  and  arts.  Teachers  !  such  is  the  class  of 
men  at  present  wanted  by  your  country,  and  the  training 
of  such  men  should  form  one  great  object  of  your  school 
instruction. 

III.  But  the  end  of  education  is  7iot  merely  to  develop  the  facul- 
ties of  the  child;  it  is  also  to  develop  them  all  in  harmony  with 
one  another,  and  with  a  due  regard  to  their  proper  order  and 
relative  importance. 

Nature,  or  rather  the  God  of  nature,  intended  that 
the  development  of  the  intellectual  and  moral  faculties 
should  be  complete  and  harmonious,  that  no  faculty 
should  be  cultivated  at  the  ex])ense  of  another,  and  that 
every  vicious  and  morbid  tendency  should  be  restrained 
and  corrected.     The  work  of  education  should   be  cor- 


DEVELOPMENT  SHOULD  BE  HABMONIOUS.      107 

rective  as  well  as  directive.  The  basis  of  our  instruction, 
as  well  as  the  methods  of  instruction,  should  be  com- 
mensurate with  the  complete  development  of  the 
faculties. 

Every  faculty  should  be  cultivated  the  moment  it  is 
capable  of  healthy  action,  for  the  ultimate  force  of  any 
faculty  is  dependent  upon  its  early  exercise  not  less  than 
upon  the  frequency  with  which  it  is  exercised.  In  early 
youth  all  the  faculties  are  under  our  control,  and  may 
be  readily  moulded  by  education;  but  at  a  later  period 
they  acquire  such  a  rigidity  and  set  as  to  resist  further 
change  or  improvement. 

Whilst  all  the  faculties  have  each  an  independent 
mode  of  action,  and  admit  of  distinct  modes  of  culture, 
the  complete  development  of  one  faculty  often  depends 
on  the  exercise  of  another;  for  example,  the  faculty 
of  recollection,  which  is  the  most  perfect  form  of  mem- 
ory, depends  upon  the  exercise  of  the  reasoning  powers. 
We  should  not,  therefore,  unnecessarily  defer  the  culti- 
vation of  the  higher  faculties. 

In  many  of  our  schools,  no  means  are  employed  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  perceptive  and  observing  faculties, 
and  the  reasoning  powers  are  either  entirely  neglected 
or  cultivated  upon  too  narrow  a  basis. 

That  system  of  instruction  is  especially  defective 
which  cultivates  the  intellectual  powers  and  neglects  the 
training  of  the  affections  and  moral  feelings. 

The  system,  practised  in  too  many  of  our  schools,  of 
cramming  boys  with  a  knowledge  of  particular  subjects j 
is  not  only  erroneous  in  method,  but  highly  reprehensible 
on  the  ground  of  moral  principle.  One  boy  is  almost 
exclusively  taught  drawing,  another  mental  arithmetic, 


108  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

and  SO  on,  with  the  view  of  exhibiting,  at  some  public 
examination,  the  little  intellectual  prodigies  to  an  ad- 
miring crowd  of  visitors.  This  one-sided  system  cannot 
be  too  strongly  denounced;  it  is  a  lie  of  the  most  mis- 
chievous character, — it  is  deceptive  in  its  aim  as  well  as 
in  its  results, — it  heartlessly  sacrifices  the  future  happi- 
ness of  the  child  to  pander  to  a  morbid  taste  on  the  part 
of  the  public  for  witnessing  cases  of  unhealthful  pre- 
cocity of  intellect.  The  school-room  should  never  be- 
come a  hot-bed  for  stimulating  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  early  genius.  As  all  the  boys,  in  each  class  of 
a  national  school,  breathe  the  same  air,  engage  in  the 
same  physical  exercises,  and  subsist  upon  the  same  kind 
of  diet,  so,  as  a  general  rule,  the  same  intellectual  and 
moral  aliment  will  be  found  suitable  to  the  appetites  of 
all,  and  the  same  instruments  of  development  will  be 
found  adapted  to  the  powers  of  all.  If  it  be  requisite  to 
adopt  any  exceptional  rule  to  the  general  form  of  class 
instruction,  we  should  say,  let  the  master  specially  help 
those  that  cannot  help  themselves — let  him  check  the 
wayward,  and  at  the  same  time  let  him  gently  lead  the 
feeble  nurslings  of  his  flock;  let  him  specially  care  for 
the  dunces,  and  leave  the  geniuses,  under  certain  restric- 
tion, to  care  for  themselves.  That  school  is  not  in  a 
healthful  condition,  where  there  is  a  great  disparity  in 
the  attainments  of  the  pupils,  and  where  there  is  a  want 
of  an  harmonious  development  of  all  the  faculties  and 
8usce})tibilities  of  the  pupils.  At  the  same  time,  it  must 
be  conceded  that  the  management  of  peculiar  tempers, 
dispositions,  and  tastes  must  depend  upon  the  individual 
skill  and  judgment  of  the  master.  While  he  adheres  to 
his  general  plan  of  class  instruction,  he  will  not  "  pemiit 


INSTRUCTION    SHOULD    BE    PROGRESSIVE.  109 

himself  to  misapprehend,  or  to  pervert  according  to  his 
own  contracted  views,  that  which  the  Creator  has  or- 
dered in  infinite  wisdom," — he  will  not  confound  the 
amiable  and  good  with  the  mischievous  and  wicked, — 
he  will  not  discourage  the  intelligent  and  industrious  by 
connecting  them  with  the  ignorant  and  lazy,  and  w^hen 
mere  class  arrangements  fail  in  giving  a  proper  scope 
for  the  exercise  of  the  minds  of  superior  boys,  he  will 
assign  them  some  special  duties  for  their  self -improve- 
ment and  development. 

IV.  In  order  to  promote  the  harmomous  development  of  the 
faculties,  instruction  should  he  progressive, — the  range  of 
subjects,  as  well  as  the  methods  employed  in  teaching  them, 
should  he  extended  and  completed  as  the  faculties  of  the  pupil 
are  expanded  and  developed. 

According  to  this  method,  the  instruction  first  given 
to  little  children  should  be  as  simple  as  possible.  But 
as  their  minds  become  more  and  more  developed,  the 
subject  matter  of  our  instruction  should  be  extended  and 
systematized  accordingly,  and  the  range  of  instruction, 
as  well  as  the  manner  in  which  that  instruction  is  carried 
out,  should  be  duly  proportioned  to,  and  commensurate 
with,  the  growth  of  the  faculties.  It  is  a  false  idea  to 
suppose  that  we  can  teach  children  from  a  perfect  text- 
book on  any  given  subject.*     It  is  a  law  of  our  intel- 

*The  plan  of  employing  complete  text-books  has,  in  my  opinion,  con- 
tributed to  the  formation  of  more  dunces  than  Nature  herself  has  ever 
produced.  Our  so-called  perfect  text-books  rank  amongst  the  greatest 
evils  to  be  found  in  our  present  system  of  instruction.  The  very  com- 
pleteness and  so-called  strictly  logical  arrangement  of  these  books,  are 
the  great  causes  which  render  them  unsuitable  for  the  development  of  the 
human  faculties;  the  juvenile  mind  is,  at  the  very  threshold,  repulsed  by 
the  stately  order  of  their  definitions,  their  axioms,  their  postulates,  and 


110  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

lectual  and  moral  nature  that  we  never  arrive  at  a  per- 
fect knowledge  of  any  subject  at  once;  that  can  only 
be  attnined  by  mastering  the  different  parts  of  it  little 
by  little,  and  time  after  time.  The  leading  or  promi- 
nent points  of  the  various  departments  of  human  knowl- 
edge, must  be  fully  understood  by  the  younc:  mind, 
before  it  is  capable  of  entering  into  the  details  and  sys- 
tematic combinations  forming  any  comj^lete  science. 
Hence  our  instruction  should  not  only  be  progressive,  as 
regards  the  development  of  particular  departments  of 
knowledge,  but  should  also  be  progressive  as  regards 
the  development  of  the  ensemble,  or  the  collection  of  sub- 
jects which  constitute  the  matters  of  instruction.  Let 
us  take  a  few  examples. 

In  the  teaching  of  grammar,  we  should  not  teach  from 
any  perfect  text-book,  such  as  Murray's  or  Morell's,  but 
we  should  iirst  go  through  a  very  simple,  yet  compre- 
hensive system  of  grammar,  explaining  the  simplest  and 
most  prominent  definitions  and  principles,  without  fol- 
lowing them  into  their  minute  details. 

In  the  teaching  of  practical  geometry,  we  should  first 
give  the  pupils  a  simple  preliminary  course  of  instruction, 
selecting  the  most  simple,  striking,  and  useful  problems, 
and  arranging  them  according  to  the  most  simple  and 
natural  order. 


tlieir  abstractions.  No  wonder  that  such  a  system,  followed  out  rigidly, 
lias  caused  pedagogues  and  task  masters  to  place  the  stamp  of  dunce  upon 
the  brow  of  some  of  the  highest  orders  of  intellect,  and  to  drive  such 
Intellects  from  the  close  hot-beds  of  school  instruction  to  seek  for  that 
liealthful  developme-it  which  is  to  be  found  in  a  free  and  unrestrained 
communion  with  the  objects  of  nature.  All  unnatural  and  constrained 
systems  of  education  invarial)ly  disgust  boys  of  superior  mind?,  and  cause 
I  hem  to  seek  the  development  of  their  faculties  In  the  way  by  which 
nature  intended  they  should  be  developed. 


SELF-DE  VELOPM  ENT.  Ill 

In  the  teaching  of  arithmetic,  we  should  first  carry 
the  pupils  through  a  simple  and  comprehensive  course 
of  calculation,  embodying  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  funda- 
mental operations  of  numbers,  before  we  attempted  to 
carry  them  through  the  so-called  systematic  course  of 
arithmetic,  involving  long  and  irksome  calculations, 
intended  to  give  expertness  and  skill  in  the  manipulation 
of  numbers,  rather  than  to  awaken  and  invigorate  the 
intellectual  faculties. 

In  the  teaching  of  familiar  sciences,  we  should  first 
teach  just  so  much  of  all  the  useful  sciences,  without  a 
slavish  regard  to  their  technical  arrangement,  as  could 
be  comprehended  by  the  pupils  at  their  particular  stage 
of  intellectual  development,  constantly  observing,  at  the 
same  time,  that  the  subjects  of  instruction  are  arranged 
according  to  their  order  of  simplicity  and  natural  affinity, 
rather  than  according  to  their  order  of  conventional 
classification.  For  example,  if  we  wanted  a  child  to 
understand  two  laws  or  principles,  which  had  some  ana- 
logy with  each  other,  or  depended  upon  some  common 
principle,  we  should  not  trouble  ourselves  with  inquiring 
whether  the  one  law  belonged  to  statics,  or  the  other  to 
hydrostatics;  it  would  be  enough  for  our  purpose  to 
know  that  the  one  would  enable  us  to  illustrate  the 
other.     And  so  on  to  the  treatment  of  other  objects. 

V.    Our  system  of  teaching  should  foster  the  principle  of  self, 
development  and  self  instruction. 

Children  like  to  discover  things,  and  to  do  things,  for 
themselves,  and  they  always  attach  the  highest  value  to 
the  knowledge  which  is  thus  acquired.  The  suggestive 
method  of  instruction  is  admirably  calculated  to  foster 


112  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

this  principle  of  selT-development.  A  knowledge  of  the 
properties  of  objects,  of  the  elements  of  number,  and  of 
some  of  the  most  obvious  laws  of  nature  may  be  readily 
taught  in  tliis  way.  In  the  course  of  our  instruction  we 
sliould  regard  the  little  pupil,  not  as  a  mere  recipient  of 
knowledge,  not  as  a  passive  machine  to  be  moved  at  our 
will,  but  as  a  thinking  and  voluntary  agent,  capable  of 
collecting  ideas,  and  even  of  originating  them,  when  the 
proper  materials  or  subjects  of  thought  are  placed  before 
him.  But  the  teacher  must  not  allow  his  pupils  to 
wander  in  a  wrong  direction  in  search  of  truth.  He 
must  be  constantly  by  their  side,  to  shield  them  from 
danger,  and  to  guide  them  to  truth, — to  correct  their 
errors,  and  to  confirm  their  discoveries.  In  order  that 
this  spirit  of  self-development  may  be  maintained  in  a 
condition  of  vigorous  activity,  the  teacher  should  never 
require  his  pupils  to  do  anything  which  they  are  not 
able  to  do;  and  he  should  never  tell  them  anything 
which  they  are  capable  of  finding  out  for  themselves. 
His  teaching  should  be  suggestive.  As  one  of  the  best 
means  of  self-development, 

IFe  should  foster  volunlary  efforts. 

The  teacher  should  constantly  endeavor  to  incite  chil- 
dren to  voluntary  efforts;  this  is  especially  applicable 
to  subjects  of  home  instruction.  AVith  the  generality  of 
children  this  may  be  readily  effected:  instead  of  saying 
to  a  boy — "Come!  you  must  learn  your  lesson;  if  you 
do  not  I  shall  whip  you  very  severely," — it  would  be 
much  better  to  say  to  him — "  You  have  an  interesting 
lesson  to  learn  to-night;  when  you  have  done  with  your 
play  you  will,  I  am  sure,  find  pleasure  in  learning  it." 


VOLTJNTAEY   EFFORTS   TO    BE    FOSTERED.  113 

We  should  catch  children  in  the  proper  frame  of  mind 
for  learning;  and  if  they  are  not  in  that  frame  of  mind, 
when  we  want  to  give  them  instruction,  we  should 
endeavor  to  create  it.  The  usual  seasons  of  amusement 
should  never  be  selected  for  graver  kinds  of  instruction; 
for  in  order  that  children  may  give  an  earnest  attention 
to  any  subject,  their  minds  should  not  be  pre-occupied 
with  any  matter  of  particular  interest. 

We  should  catch  the  clue  of  thought  in  a  child's  mind, 
and  then,  by  following  it  out,  give  it  the  direction  which 
we  wish  it  to  take.  In  short,  we  must  observe,  follow, 
and  then  lead.  By  this  means,  we  may  acquire  an  un- 
limited control  over  the  child's  intellectual  and  moral 
habits,  without  exercising  any  positive  constraint  on  his 
liberty  of  action. 

By  this  method,  we  not  only  cultivate  the  reflective 
and  inventive  powers  of  the  child,  but  we  foster  the 
principle  of  self-dependence,  which  is  so  essential  to  his 
future  success  in  life. 

Independence  of  thought  is  nearly  allied  to  invention; 
and  children  are  capable  of  both.  Children  are  more  in- 
ventive at  six  years  of  age  than  they  are  at  ten;  and 
independence  of  thought,  like  the  first  untainted  odor  of 
the  fresh  flower,  loses  its  power  as  the  child  advances  in 
years.  Our  present  systems  of  education  seem  to  check 
the  growth  of  the  inventive  faculties,  by  filling  the  mind 
with  knowledge,  rather  than  attending  to  the  develop- 
ment of  original  power.  We  teach  too  much  by  author- 
ity, and  pay  too  little  regard  to  the  independence  and 
unbiased  exercise  of  the  reasoning  powers.  When  we 
put  a  question  to  children,  we  generally  let  them  know, 
one  way  or  another,  what  sort  of  answer  we  expect  from 


114  PHILOSOPHY   OP   EDUCATION. 

them;  and  they,  as  a  matter  of  course,  in  the  place  of 
thinking  and  judging  for  themselves  on  the  matter  of 
inquiry,  endeavor  to  find  out  what  our  view  of  it  is,  and 
frame  their  answer  accordingly.  Boys  thus  ape  the 
habits  of  thought  and  manners  of  men  so  much  that  they 
lose  the  beautiful  bloom  of  early  childhood  long  before 
the  reflective  period  of  manhood  has  commenced.  In 
this  way  they  may  acquire  knowledge,  but  it  is  gained 
at  a  fearful  cost.  Why  do  we  not  encourage  children 
to  make  and  invent  things?  why  do  we  not  give  them 
the  means  of  constructing  toys  and  simple  machines, 
and  of  making  simple  experiments  for  themselves  ?  The 
answer  is  apparent — we  are  too  desirous  of  moulding  tlie 
infant  soul  after  our  preconceived  ideas.  Newton's  first 
invention  was  a  little  water  mill;  and  Watt's  first  steam- 
engine,  at  least  as  far  as  principle  is  concerned,  was  his 
mother's  kettle.  Why  have  we  so  few  thinkers  amongst 
us,  and  so  many  great  scholars,  whose  heads  are  so  filled 
with  the  ideas  of  others,  that  they  have  no  room  for  any 
thoughts  of  their  own  ?  Because  we  keep  constantly 
filling  the  minds  of  our  children  with  ideas,  but  rarely 
seek  to  develop  that  power  which  gives  a  command  over 
those  ideas. 

VI.  In  early  childhood  our  subjects  of  instruction  should  appeal 
to  the  senses. 

The  first  object  of  instruction  should  be  the  develop- 
ment of  the  perceptive  and  conoeptive  faculties;  this  is 
best  done  by  a  series  of  graduated  lessons  on  the  prop- 
erties and  uses  of  external  objects.  These  lessons,  if 
properly  conducted,  open  up  to  the  mind  of  the  child 
the  first  great  sources  of  knowledge,  awaken  curiosity, 


INSTRUCTION  APPEALING  TO  THE  SENSES.  115 

encourage  a  laudable  spirit  of  inquiry,  and  cultivate 
habits  of  observation  and  attention.  Beginning  with 
the  most  familiar  things,  such  as  the  properties  and  uses 
of  the  articles  about  the  house,  the  teacher  advances  with 
slow  steps,  making  sure  that  his  pupils  comprehend  as 
far  as  it  is  desirable  that  they  should  do  so,  every  suc- 
cessive lesson;  and  as  their  faculties  expand,  the  teacher 
takes  care  that  the  subject  matters  of  instruction  are  en- 
larged accordingly. 

Before  a  child  can  think,  he  must  be  supplied  with 
the  first  elements  of  thought;  the  names  and  properties 
of  external  objects  constitute  these  first  elements.  Ob- 
jects are  distinguished  from  one  another  by  their  prop- 
erties, and  a  knowledge  of  these  properties  can  only  be 
acquired  by  sensation  and  perception;  in  fact,  the  child 
must  see  these  properties  before  he  can  have  any  idea 
or  conception  of  the  objects  to  which  they  belong.  One 
body  is  round  or  square,  black  or  white,  hard  or  soft, 
transparent  or  opaque,  solid  or  fluid,  etc.,  according  to 
the  impression  which  the  body  itself  produces  upon  the 
senses  of  the  child;  hence  it  follows  that  the  educator 
should  convey  a  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  objects, 
and  the  names  by  which  they  are  called,  in  connection 
with  the  actual  perception  of  the  objects  themselves. 
The  name  of  a  thing,  or  the  name  given  to  the  prop- 
erties of  a  thing,  should  never  be  given  apart  from  the 
perception  of  the  thing  itself.  After  the  thing  is  with- 
drawn, the  name  of  it,  as  well  as  the  conception  of  it, 
remains  fixed  in  the  mind;  the  vividness  and  truth- 
fulness of  the  conception  formed  of  a  thing  being  always 
in  proportion  to  the  intensity  of  the  interest  which  the 
thing  itself  excited  in  the  mind,   Thus  words  are  always 


116  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

associated  with  ideas.  A  child's  mental  existence  almost 
entirely  depends  on  the  exercise  of  the  faculty  of  con- 
ception. 

At  this  early  stage  of  development,  the  proper  intel- 
lectual aliment  is  a  knowledge  of  facts^ — these  facts  become 
the  hrst  subjects  of  reflection,  and  thus  prepare  the  way 
for  a  higher  development.  As  the  first  step  in  philosophy 
is  to  make  a  collection  of  facts,  so  the  first  stages  of  in- 
struction should  be  the  communication  of  a  knowledge 
of  facts,  without  any  attempts  to  convey  a  knowledge  of 
causes,  for  this  should  belong  to  a  higher  and  subsequent 
period  of  instruction.  Nothing  can  be  more  out  of 
place,  or  more  absurd,  than  the  attempts  of  authors,  as 
well  as  of  teachers,  to  explain  the  causes  of  familiar 
phenomena  to  very  young  children;  or  to  bringdown  to 
the  level  of  their  capacity,  subjects  which  presuppose 
the  intelligence  of  riper  years.  Such  instructors  fill  the 
head  of  the  pupil  with  learned  words  and  phrases,  which 
convey  no  j^ositive  idea  to  him;  torture  his  memory  and 
understanding  with  a  catalogue  of  frightful  names;  and 
render  the  work  of  education  a  painful  infliction,  in  the 
place  of  a  delightful  duty. 

A  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  external  objects  should  he 
taught  hy  eompo/rison  and  contrast^  and  things  that  are  unkfiown 
hy  those  that  are  k7iow7i.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  explaining 
the  property  of  transparency,  we  should  show  that  glass 
is  transparent, — that  there  are  other  bodies  which  are 
also  transparent, — that  there  are  some  bodies  which  are 
only  half-transparent  or  semi-transparent, — and  tliat 
there  is  a  great  number  of  bodies  which  are  opaque. 
Here  the  property  is  made  a  subject  of  comparison  and 
contrast.     Again,  the  picture  of  a  tiger,  aided  by  the 


COMPARISON    AND    CONTRAST.  117 

resemblance  which  he  has  to  a  cat,  will  enable  us  to  con- 
rey  a  sufficiently  correct  conception  of  this  gigantic 
specimen  of  the  feline  race;  thus  we  should  say  to  the 
child: — A  tiger  is  a  great  wild,  savage  cat,  which  can 
tear  an  ox  to  pieces  with  its  large  claws  and  teeth  with 
as  much  ease  as  our  house  cat  can  tear  a  little  mouse.  In 
this  way  we  should  convey  a  knowledge  of  the  unknown 
thing,  by  means  of  the  qualities  of  a  thing  that  is  known. 
Commencing  with  what  the  child  knows,  we  conduct 
him  by  easy  gradations  to  a  knowledge  of  what  he  does 
not  know.  In  like  manner,  the  conception  which  the 
child  forms  of  his  earthly  father  enables  him  to  form  an 
idea  of  his  heavenly  Father:  thus  he  readily  understands 
what  is  meant  by  the  language — "  Our  Father,  which 
art  in  heaven." 

Pictorial  representations  aid  us  in  giving  vivacity  and 
vigor  to  the  faculty  of  conception. 

We  should  lead  the  child  to  draw  simple  inferences 
from  the  properties  of  the  objects  presented  to  his 
senses.  Glass  scratches  copper, — glass  is  harder  than 
copper.  Iron  sinks  in  water, — iron  is  heavier  than 
water;  wood  floats  on  water, — wood  is  lighter  than 
water:  and  so  on. 

The  great  end  to  be  attained  by  object  lessons  is  to 
familiarize  the  young  mind  with  the  meaning  of  scien- 
tific terms  and  facts,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  systematic 
study  of  science  at  a  later  period.  Water  flows  from 
one  vessel  to  another, — water  is  called  2l  fluid.  Lead  is  a 
solid,  but  the  heat  of  the  tire  causes  it  to  melt^ — lead  is 
fusible.  Water  boils  in  the  kettle;  the  heat  makes  the 
water  boil;  the  steam  that  you  see  coming  out  of  the 
mouth  of  the  kettle  is  water  in  the  form  of  vapor, — what 


118  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

you  see  going  on  is  called  vapori%ation.  A  little  water  is 
spread  over  a  plate;  the  water  gradually  disappears; 
what  you  see  going  on  is  called  evaporation :  and  so  on. 
These  lessons  should,  of  course,  always  be  methodical, 
and  suited  to  the  ages  and  capabilities  of  the  children. 
Some  of  the  most  important  properties  and  definitions 
of  numbers  and  geometrical  figures  may  be  readily 
taught  by  means  of  tangible  objects. 

Object  lessons,  to  be  instructive  and  interesting,  should 
always  contain  something  fresh  and  sparkling.  Unfor- 
tunately, teachers  are  too  much  in  the  habit  of  reiterat- 
ing again  and  again  the  same  sort  of  lessons,  containing 
similar  enumerations  of  properties,  &c.  Such  teachers 
seem  to  have  no  idea  that  progress  should  characterize 
all  our  instruction.  In  our  object  lessons  we  should 
always  leave  something  for  the  conceptive  faculty  to 
work  out;  by  this  means  we  give  an  intellectuality  and 
ideality  to  our  lessons;  graphic  pictures  and  striking 
contrasts  or  analogies  interest  the  feelings,  and  thereby 
give  depth  and  vigor  to  the  conceptions;  things  that  are 
visible  are  associated  with  things  that  are  invisible;  ob- 
jects that  are  near  with  those  that  are  distant;  events 
that  are  present  with  those  that  are  past;  and  the  pres- 
ent and  the  past  taken  together  constitute  the  clew  by 
which  we  penetrate  the  mazes  of  the  future. 

A  child  must  take  many  things  as  facts  of  observation 
which  he  may  have  afterwards  to  establish  by  a  process 
of  abstract  reasoning,  or  by  a  process  of  induction;  and 
it  necessarily  follows  that  many  of  our  first  lessons,  in 
certain  departments  of  knowledge,  must  be  imperfect; 
we  must  often  rest  satisfied  with  giving  tangible  de- 
monstrations   when  logical  processes   would   fail  to  be 


CtlXTlVATlON    OF   THE   HIGHER   FACULTIES.  119 

understood;  and  where  demonstrations  cannot  be  given, 
illustrations  must  supply  their  place;  we  must  teach 
particular  forms  of  propositions  when  the  general  form 
lies  beyond  the  intellectul  grasp  of  the  child;  and  many 
truths,  plain  and  almost  tangible  in  themselves,  will  be 
accepted  as  axioms  or  as  facts,  which  would  not  be 
classed  under  that  category  by  the  learned  logician. 
Simple  expositions  of  familiar  and  important  truths  not 
only  exercise  and  develop  the  mind,  but  they  are  the 
most  efficient  means  of  imparting  real,  positive  knowl- 
edge. 

VII.   The  reasoning  and  higher  faculties  should  he  cultivated  on 
an  enlarged  basis  of  instruction. 

The  subject  matter  of  instruction  should  be  commen- 
surate with  the  expansive  nature  of  the  faculties.  Our 
rich  stores  of  scientific  and  useful  knowledge  furnish  us 
with  the  means  of  giving  a  superior  kind  of  culture  to 
the  reasoning  powers.  The  present  basis  of  school  in- 
struction is  not  broad  enough  to  afford  scope  for  the 
full  development  of  the  reflective  faculties.  In  addition 
to  the  subjects  of  language  and  mathematics,  some  of 
the  most  useful  and  interesting  branches  of  physical 
science  should  be  more  thoroughly  and  systematically 
taught  in  our  upper  schools,  not  only  as  a  means  of 
intellectual  culture,  but  also  on  account  of  their  imme- 
diate bearing  on  the  business  of  life. 

Whilst  a  sufficiently  large  basis  of  instruction  gives 
breadth  and  expansiveness  to  the  reflective  powers,  a 
narrow  basis  tends  to  give  them  a  set  or  leaning,  which 
stands  in  the  way  of  their  future  development.  Now 
we  maintain  that   these   faculties   are   cultivated  only 


120  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

imperfectly  by  means  of  classics  and  mathematics,— 
they  do  not  properly  exercise  all  the  reflective  faculties; 
they  are  too  limited  in  range,  and  too  abstract  and 
scholastic  in  form;  they  do  not  sufficiently  bear  upon 
the  great  purposes  of  life,  or  prepare  the  boy  for  ful- 
filling the  duties  of  the  man.  As  all  kinds  of  philo- 
sophical apparatus  can  now  be  purchased  at  a  com- 
paratively cheap  price,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  teachers 
will  suit  their  instruction  to  the  advanced  state  of  our 
science  and  civilization,  and  that  they  will  no  longer 
restrict  their  subjects  of  instruction  to  that  narrow 
range  of  l<iif>vvledge  which  characterized  an  age  that 
is  past. 

VIII.  Instruction  should  proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  complex. 

Although  this  principle  of  education  is  generally  known 
and  acknowledged,  yet  comparatively  few  teachers 
understand  it  rightly,  or  practise  it  completely.  It 
is  by  no  means  uncommon  to  find  teachers  practising  a 
dogmatic  and  technical  system  of  instruction,  while 
at  the  same  time  they  believe  that  they  are  teaching 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex:  our  dogmatic  modes  of 
instruction  are  simple  enough  as  regards  the  work  of  the 
master,  whilst  they  are  anything  but  simple  when  con- 
sidered in  relation  to  the  mental  efforts  required  of  the 
pupil.  As  this  species  of  self-delusion  is  so  fatal  in  its 
consequences,  it  is  important  that  we  should  exactly 
understand  what  is  meant  by  teaching  from  the  simple 
to  the  complex.  We  teach  from  the  simple  to  the 
complex  when  we  explain  the  various  particular  forms 
of  a  general  or  abstract  principle  before  we  attempt  to 
explain  the  general  principle  itself:  or  when  we  explain 


FROM   THE    SIMPLE    TO   THE    COMPLEX.  121 

the  simpler  elements  or  parts  of  a  subject  before  we 
attempt  to  teach  the  subject  as  a  whole.  Id  order  to 
keep  within  the  sphere  of  the  child's  capabilities,  we 
must  advance  by  slow  and  sure  gradations  from  the 
things  that  are  known  to  the  things  that  are  unknown. 
What  the  child  does  know  should  form  a  stepping-stone 
to  what  he  does  not  know.  In  short,  we  should  teach  a 
subject  little  by  little,  now  a  little  and  then  a  little, 
until  we  have  taught  the  whole  of  it.  Let  us  take  a  few 
examples: — 

In  learning  to  write,  the  child  should  learn  to  make 
straight  lines  before  hooks,  and  letters  before  words. 

To  prove  any  general  j^rinciple  of  calculation,  we 
should  first  show  the  principle  as  applied  to  a  variety  of 
particular  examples. 

If  we  wanted  to  show  the  nature  of  an  abstract  prop- 
osition in  geometry,  we  should  first  show  the  prin- 
ciple as  applied  to  some  of  the  most  simple  and  familiar 
cases. 

To  make  our  pupils  acquainted  with  a  technical  or 
abstract  term,  we  should  express  the  idea  intended 
to  be  conveyed  by  that  term  in  familiar  language,  giv- 
ing at  the  same  time  a  variety  of  illustrations  of  its  appli- 
cation. 

And  so  on  to  other  subjects. 

If  a  teacher  wishes  to  be  really  successful  with  chil- 
dren, he  must  become  like  a  little  child  in  thought, 
feeling,  and  action;  he  must,  for  the  time  being,  cease 
to  be  what  he  is,  and  become  what  he  was  once.  Un- 
doubtedly some  teachers  possess  this  remarkable  power. 
This  power,  which  seems  to  be  characteristic  of  superior 
teachers,  is  no  doubt  more  a  natural  than  an  acquired 


122  PHILOSOPHY   OF    EDUCATION. 

gift;  yet,  notwithstanding,  it  admits  of  being  strength- 
ened and  developed  by  habit  and  reflection.  The 
learned  tutors  of  colleges,  and  the  proud  men  of  science 
laugh  to  scorn  the  humble  attempts  of  the  true  teacher 
to  simplify  a  process  of  reasoning,  break  down  the  diffi- 
culties of  a  problem,  or  illustrate  the  truth  of  a  general 
law  of  nature; — too  conscious  of  their  own  mental  power, 
they  seem  to  have  forgotten  that  they  were  once  chil- 
dren, and  that  their  own  abstract  conceptions  have  been 
the  result  of  long  and  rejjeated  eiforts; — they  must  have 
the  whole  of  a  subject  taught,  or  none  of  it; — they  can- 
not permit  the  gigantic  proportions  of  a  favorite  subject 
to  be  reduced,  or  in  any  way  stripped  of  their  abstract 
formalities; — their  recognized  books,  like  holy  writ, 
must  neither  have  anything  added  to  them,  nor  anything 
taken  away  from  them; — they  would  rather  that  the 
doom  of  stationary  ignorance  should  rest  upon  the  child 
of  the  poor  than  that  he  should  acquire  knowledge  in 
any  other  way  than  they  have  prescribed.  How  long 
will  authority  and  conventional  observances  continue  to 
fetter  our  school  literature,  and  to  cast  a  disastrous 
shadow  over  the  progress  of  education?  A  man  may 
know  Greek,  without  being  able  to  teach  grammar;  and 
he  may  be  master  of  the  higher  calculus,  without  being 
able  to  give  simple  expositions  of  the  principles  of 
arithmetic.  In  fact,  a  person  may  be  too  learned  for 
a  teacher  for  children;  for  men  of  profound  knowledge 
usually  expect  too  much  of  their  pupils.  It  is  said  that 
Emmerson,  one  of  the  best  mathematicians  of  his  age, 
always  complained  that  its  pupils  were  all  incorrigible 
dunces:  the  fact  is  not  at  all  surprising  when  the  dog- 


^  FACTS    AND    EXPERIMENTS.  123 

matic  character  of  the  man's  system  of  teaching  is  taken 
into  consideration. 

Besides  great  skill,  the  teacher  must  possess  many 
moral  qualities,  in  order  to  develop  and  train  the  facul- 
ties of  children;  he  must  especially  possess  great 
patience,  gentleness,  forbearance,  and  faith.  On  this 
subject  Woodbridge  beautifully  observes:  "The  example 
of  our  Saviour  himself  in  the  education  of  his  disciples, 
teaches  us  the  importance  of  applying  these  principles 
both  to  intellectual  and  moral  subjects.  How  grossly 
erroneous  were  their  ideas  in  reference  to  his  character 
and  destination:  how  childish  and  unworthy  their  plans 
and  their  contests;  and  yet  with  what  slowness  did  He 
unfold  the  great  truths  He  came  to  reveal ! — how  much 
did  he  leave  to  be  learned  after  his  death  ! — with  what 
gentleness  did  he  tell  them,  *I  have  many  things  to  say 
unto  you,  but  ye  cannot  bear  them  now:' — with  what 
patience  did  he  bear  with  their  errors,  their  follies,  and 
their  sins  ! — with  what  mildness  did  he  generally  reprove 
them! — Let  the  educator  beware  that  he  does  not 
attempt  to  be  wiser  than  his  Master,  and  teach  things 
which  demand  efforts  for  which  the  infant  mind  is  too 
feeble." 

TX.  Facts  should  he  taught  he/ore  causes;  and  experiments, 
illustrating  general  laws  or  principles  of  nature,  should  he 
given  he/ore  the  general  laws  or  principles  are  expounded. 

In  many  cases,  a  young  person  can  readily  understand 
the  nature  of  a  law,  if  it  is  presented  to  his  senses  in  an 
actual  matter-of-fact  form,  when  he  would  be  utterly 
unable  to  comprehend  the  technical  form  in  which  that 
law  is  usually  expressed.    The  particular  facts  upon 


124  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

which  any  general  law  depends,  give  to  that  law  a  local 
habitation  and  a  familiarized  form  which  enable  the 
young  mind  to  become,  as  it  were,  its  own  interpreter. 
General  forms  of  expression  are  often  little  better  than 
high-sounding  terms  and  empty  names,  which,  if  studied 
apart  from  the  facts  which  they  comprehend,  rather 
mystify  and  darken  the  principles  involved  in  them  than 
convey  any  instructive  knowledge  to  the  mind.  The 
true  educator  will  never  be  hasty  in  drawing  generaliza- 
tions, or  in  expounding  causes;  in  some  cases  he  will 
content  himself  with  giving  an  exposition  of  general 
facts,  well  knowing  that  these  facts,  if  thoroughly 
understood,  will  remain  in  the  minds  of  his  pupils  like 
seeds,  which  time  and  reflection  will  afterwards  cause  to 
vegetate  and  to  grow  into  the  full  and  developed  forms 
of  general  principles.  At  the  same  time  he  will  con- 
stantly bear  in  mind  that  his  facts  should  be  taught  in 
such  a  way  as  to  conduct  his  pupils  to  a  knowledge  of 
causes  and  principles;  and  his  experiments  should  be 
made  so  as  to  lead  to  a  knowledge  of  physical  laws. 
Let  us  take  a  few  examples. 

If  I  wanted  to  teach  a  child  the  meaning  of  the  term 
elasticity,  I  should  show  by  experiment  the  form 
which  the  property  assumes  in  different  familiar  sub- 
stances. 

If  I  wanted  to  explain  the  distinctive  properties  of 
different  geometrical  figures,  I  should  actually  draw^ 
these  figures  in  a  way  corresponding  to  the  conditions 
of  the  abstract  definitions  which  1  should  have  after- 
wards to  give. 

If  I  wanted  to  teach  the  laws  of  magnetism,  I  should 
first  make  the  experiments  illustrating  these  laws,  and 


THE    CONCRETE   BEFORE    THE    A.BSTRACT.  125 

then  afterwards  lead  the  pupils  to  express  in  their  own 
language  the  law,  or  laws,  which  might  be  derived  from 
the  facts  or  experiments. 

If  I  wanted  to  show  the  principle  of  the  lever,  I 
should  divide  a  thin  lath  into  a  certain  number  of  equal 
parts,  and  after  balancing  it  on  the  edge  of  a  book,  I 
should  place  different  weights  at  the  marks  made  on 
the  lath,  so  as  to  balance  each  other,  and  then  call  the 
pupils'  attention  to  the  law  upon  which  the  equilibrium 
depends. 

If  I  wanted  to  explain  the  leading  principles  of  elec- 
tricity, I  should  first  give  a  series  of  experiments,  con- 
ducted with  an  aparatus  formed  with  the  most  familiar 
articles  of  household  use,  such  as  wine-glasses,  sealing- 
wax,  tea-trays,  brown  paper,  gutta  percha,  &c.,  taking 
care  that  the  leading  facts  established  by  the  experi- 
ments were  fully  admitted  and  understood  before  I  gave 
my  expositions  of  the  laws,  or  it  might  be  of  the  theo- 
ries proposed  to  explain  the  operation. 

And  so  on  to  other  subjects  of  instruction. 

X.    We  should  teach  the  concrete  before  the  abstract. 

In  this  method  of  instruction  we  employ  the  qualities 
and  uses  of  familiar  things  and  objects  to  elucidate  or 
explain  the  terms,  facts,  and  principles  of  science  and 
art.  In  this  way  we  lead  the  mind  of  the  pupils  from 
the  perception  of  the  things  which  are  visible  and  tan- 
gible, to  the  conception  of  abstract  and  general  princi- 
ples. According  to  this  principle  also,  the  knowledge 
of  language  ought  to  precede  the  knowledge  of  gram- 
matical rules;  and  the  meaning  of  abstract  propositions 


126  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

ought  to  be  explained  in  connection  with  their  concrete 
forms. 

Teacliers  often  deceive  themselves  when  they  think  a 
child  has  followed  them  in  the  explanation  of  an  abstract 
proposition.  If  they  would  make  the  inquiry,  they 
would  generally  find  that  the  child  had  seized  upon 
some  concrete  form  of  the  abstraction,  or  that  he  had 
attached  some  whimsical  sense  to  the  terms  employed. 
At  the  day  school  I  was  taught  that  *'  a  verb  is  a  word 
which  signifies  to  be,  to  do,  or  to  suffer."  I  thought 
that  the  poor  verbs  were  miserable  little  things,  for  all 
their  being  and  doing  ended  in  suffering.  At  the  Sun- 
day school  I  had  to  answer  the  following  question, 
from  the  Assembly's  shorter  catechism : — "  Qties.  Wherein 
is  the  moral  law  summarily  comprehended  ?  Ans.  The 
moral  law  is  summarily  comprehended  in  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments." Now  when  I  answered  this  question  I 
invariably  thought  of  a  small  village  called  Moralaws 
which  had  ten  remarkable  trees  growing  near  it,  which 
I  thought  were  something  like  the  Ten  Commandments. 

This  method  of  teaching  involves  the  principle  of 
what  is  now  known  by  the  name  of  the  science  of  famil- 
iar things.     Let  us  take  a  few  examples. 

If  I  wanted  to  explain  some  general  property  of  num- 
bers, I  should  do  it  by  means  of  counters,  or  balls,  or 
marks.  If  I  wanted  to  show  the  nature  of  inflammable 
substances,  and  the  properties  of  the  atmosphere  con- 
sidered in  relation  to  combustion,  I  should  direct  the 
attention  of  the  pupils  to  the  flame  of  a  candle,  and  show, 
by  various  simple  experiments,  how  the  vital  air  main- 
tains the  ignition  of  the  tallow,  etc.     Thus  the  facts  ex- 


CONSTRUCTIVE   TEACHING,  127 

hibited  in  a  burning  candle  become,  as  it  were,  the  hooks 
upon  which  we  hang  our  science  of  combustion. 

No  teacher  need  be  at  a  loss  for  examples.  He  may 
find  sermons  in  stones,  valuable  lessons  in  the  toys  of 
his  pupils,  and  even  a  soap  bubble  may  be  made  to  dis- 
course most  excellent  philoKophy. 

XI.    When  practicahle,  our  teaching  should  he  constructive. 

By  means  of  this  method,  as  I  have  before  explained, 
we,  as  it  were,  build  up,  part  by  part,  or  piece  by  piece 
of  the  subject  matter  of  instruction,  until  we  arrive  at 
the  completion  of  the  whole. 

For  example,  in  explaining  the  construction  of  a  ma- 
chine I  should  not  draw  the  whole  machine  and  then 
proceed  to  explain  the  mode  of  its  action;  on  the  con- 
trary, 1  should  explain  the  action  and  construction  of  the 
different  parts  as  I  sketched  them  upon  the  blackboard, 
and  when  I  had  completed  the  whole,  I  should  explain 
the  combined  action  of  all  the  parts.  In  like  manner,  in 
teaching  drawing  or  practical  geometry  according  to  the 
constructive  method,  I  should  not  draw  the  whole  pic- 
ture or  figure,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  then  proceed  to 
explain  its  construction;  but  I  should  explain  the  con- 
struction of  the  parts  as  I  sketched  them, — giving  line 
upon  line,  and  precept  upon  precept.  In  this  way  the 
instruction  advances,  step  by  step,  with  the  progress  of 
the  pictorial  representation.  We  suit  the  action  to  the 
word  and  the  word  to  the  action;  the  one  illustrates  the 
other;  the  language  of  the  exposition  responds  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  teacher  and  the  movements  of  the  pencil:  thus 
the  work  of  instruction  advances  by  easy  gradations, 
until  the  whole  subject  is  brought  before  the  eye  and 


128  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

the  mind  of  the  pnpil,  with  all  the  relations  and  combi- 
nations of  its  parts.  The  same  thing  is  observed  in  the 
teaching  of  arithmetic.  I  write  down  step  after  step,  or 
process  after  process,  taking  care  that  each  successive 
step,  or  process,  is  thoroughly  understood  before  the 
succeeding  step,  or  process,  is  written  down.  In  teach- 
ing the  science  of  familiar  things,  also,  I  should  explain 
the  properties  of,  and  the  physical  or  mechanical  laws 
involved  in,  the  different  parts  or  portions  of  the  object 
or  thing  forming  the  subject  of  the  lesson. 

XII.  Expositions  of  principles  applied  to  particular  cases  should 
be  given  before  rules. 

Mere  rules  never  reach  the  depths  of  the  soul,  and  are 
therefore  forgotten  as  soon  as  they  are  out  of  use;  and 
what  is  learnt  by  rote  is  little  better  than  so  much  useless 
lumber  in  the  mind.  Rules,  in  many  cases,  are  not  mere 
negations, — they  become  positive  evils;  they  rarely,  if 
ever,  aid  the  development  of  the  mind;  in  many  cases 
they  positively  retard  it.  By  rules  we  attain  results,  w^ith- 
out  the  labor  of  investigation.  There  is  something, 
soporific  in  rules,— something  which  throws  an  enfeebling 
languor  over  the  intellectual  powers,— something  which 
inflates  our  vanity,  w^ithout  adding  to  our  self-  espect, — 
something  which  gives  us  tke  pretensions  of  tie  empiric, 
and  the  knavery  of  the  juggler.  We  liol  J  th  .t  the  Rule 
and  Rote  system,  as  it  is  usually  followed,  i  i  mi  "lectually 
and  morally  erroneous. 

To  the  earnest  instructors  of  children  w  :  \,  uiikl  .say: 
Never  teach  by  rules,  when  you  can  t-^ach  h/  Miinciples; 
never  get  a  child  to  learn  anytliing  by  >(  until  he 
understands  the  subject-matter.     \\\     >.  h  '<  :   'ands 


RULES   AND   PEmCIPLES.  129 

it,  then  he  will  readily  learn  it  by  heart  and  not  by  rote; 
the  subject  will  have  penetrated  his  soul, — he  will  love 
it  because  it  has  become  a  part  of  himself, — it  will  be 
engraven  on  his  mind,  as  with  a  pen  of  iron,  and  there 
it  will  remain,  unchanged  and  unchangeable,  for  ever. 

Some  teachers,  in  order  to  gain  a  reputation  with  the 
wonder-loving  public,  put  the  language  of  the  philoso- 
pher into  the  mouths  of  children, — make  them  recite 
Euclid  with  the  volubility  of  parrots,  and  chatter  about 
climatology,  entomology,  and  a  host  of  other  ologies, — 
give  them  rules  and  technical  forms  by  which  they  solve 
problems  that  demand  the  powers  of  a  mathematician  to 
investigate.  Now  there  is  deception  in  all  this,  for  the 
pupils  are  made  to  appear  what  they  really  are  not;  chil- 
dren in  years  and  powers,  they  are  made  to  mimic  all 
the  gravity  and  wisdom  of  the  sage;  and  what  makes 
the  deception  more  deeply  culpable,  the  children  them- 
selves are  made  parties  to  the  falsehood. 

This  method  of  teaching  from  principles  is  eminently 
calculated  to  foster  the  development  of  the  reflective 
faculties; — it  stands  in  perfect  contrast  to  rule  and  rote 
teaching.  The  latter  is  dogmatic,  the  other  is  persua- 
sive; the  one  supposes  the  pupil  to  be  a  passive  recipient 
of  knowledge — a  mere  automaton  which  acts  as  it  is 
acted  upon ;  the  other  regards  the  pupil  as  a  reasoning, 
reflective  and  voluntary  being,  capable  of  working  out 
results  by  his  own  independent  effort:  the  one  is  limited 
in  its  application  to  the  particular  subject  on  which  it  is 
given;  the  other  seeks  to  develop  those  faculties  in  the 
pupil  which  may  enable  him  to  grapple  with  any  subject 
that  may  arise,  or,  in  fact,  to  create  for  himself  the  rules 

E 


130  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

and  principles  which  govern  the  science  to  which  the 
subject  belongs. 

XIII.    Instruction  should  he  given  to  children  (yrally  and  col- 
lectively. 

There  is  nothing  like  the  living  voice,  looks,  and 
action  of  the  master,  for  intensifying  the  attention  and 
concentrating  the  faculties  of  children.  He  suits  his 
language  and  illustrations  to  the  faculties  which  he 
wishes  to  call  into  activity,  and  he  advances  with  his 
subject,  step  by  step,  according  as  his  pupils  make  pro- 
gress. Teaching  of  this  kind  is  a  lively  reality,  not  a 
dead  letter,  like  a  mere  reading  lesson. 

Children  like  to  do  things  in  company  with  one 
another, — they  like  to  learn  together  as  well  as  to  play 
together.  This  sympathy  of  association  gives  a  cheer- 
ful tone  to  the  mind  of  the  instructor  as  well  as  to  the 
minds  of  the  instructed,  and  also  calls  into  play  a  health- 
ful spirit  of  emulation.  Besides  the  answers  of  the 
most  intelligent  children  form  one  of  the  best  means  of 
instructing  the  most  backward  pupils  in  the  class. 

The  efficiency  of  collective  teaching  greatly  depends 
upon  the  completeness  of  our  classification  of  the  pupils. 
It  is  of  the  highest  importance,  therefore,  that  the  teacher 
should  fully  determine  the  true  principles  on  which  his 
pupils  should  be  arranged  in  classes. 

The  Principle  on  which  Children  should  he  classified. 

While  tlie  standard  of  instruction  should  not  be  above 
the  capabilities  of  the  pu}>il,  neither  should  it  be  below 
them.      We  mav  kill   bv   stMrviiMj^  as   well   as    bv  over- 


CLA.SSIFICATION    OF   CHILDREN.  131 

feeding.  In  like  manner,  our  intellectual  and  moral 
aliment  may  be  too  weak  and  simple  to  supply  all  the 
elements  of  growth  and  development,  or  it  may  be  too 
strong  and  stimulating  for  the  functions  of  digestion  and 
assimilation.  This  nourishment  should  be  apportioned 
both  as  to  kind  and  quantity,  so  as  to  maintain  all  the  fac- 
ulties of  the  child  in  a  healthful  and  vigorous  condition  of 
activity  and  growth.  The  classification  of  the  children  in 
a  school  should  have  a  special  regard  to  this  principle :  they 
should  be  classed,  not  according  to  size,  age,  or  attain- 
ments; not  according  to  their  mechanical  dexterity  or 
their  progress  in  the  technical  forms  of  particular  de- 
partments of  knowledge;  but  according  to  their  mental 
power  and  their  capabilities  of  improvement  and  de- 
velopment. A  boy,  for  example,  may  be  an  expert 
calculator,  or  he  may  have  a  good  verbal  memory;  yet, 
notwithstanding,  his  general  mental  power,  or  capacity 
of  development^  may  be  defective:  such  a  boy  should  be 
placed  in  a  class  corresponding  to  him  in  general  mental 
power.  Whenever  a  boy  shows  a  decided  advance 
beyond  the  other  members  of  his  class,  he  should  be 
transferred  to  a  higher  class;  or,  if  that  is  not  expedient, 
he  should  have  some  special  work  assigned  him;  on  the 
contrary,  when  a  boy  lags  behind  his  fellows,  he  should 
either  be  placed  in  a  lower  class  or  have  some  individual 
attention  given  to  him,  in  order  to  bring  him  up  to  the 
average  standard  of  capabilities.  There  is  no  subject 
of  school  management  which  requires  more  attention 
and  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  than  that  of 
classification.  We  have  here  endeavored  to  point  out 
the  true  principles  upon  which  it  should  be  based. 


132  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATIOI^. 

XIV.  Instruction  should  give  pleasure  to  children,  and  where 
this  18  not  the  case  there  is  something  wrong  as  regards  either 
the  mode  of  instruction,  or  the  subject-matter  selected  for 
instruction.  A  teacher  should  govern  his  pupils  by  the  prin- 
ciple of  love  rather  than  by  that  of  fear. 

The  proper  exercise  of  our  faculties,  whether  physical, 
intellectual,  or  moral,  affords  us  pleasure.  Light  is  not 
more  pleasant  to  the  eye,  or  melody  to  the  ear,  than 
truth  is  to  the  mind,  or  healthful  exercise  to  the  body. 
Instruction  must  afford  children  pleasure,  if  it  be  given 
in  accordance  with  the  general  principles  which  we  have 
endeavored  to  explain; — not  that  luxurious  pleasure 
which  enfeebles  their  character  and  renders  them  unfit 
for  strenuous  exertion,  but  that  nobler  pleasure  which  is 
concomitant  with  the  healthful  exercise  of  the  faculties. 

One  of  the  first  points  to  be  gained  in  giving  instruc- 
tion is 

To  secure  the  attention  of  the  children. 

If  a  teacher  once  acquires  this  power,  his  work  be- 
comes easy  and  agreeable  to  himself,  and  instructive  and 
pleasant  to  his  pupils.  The  great  secret  in  fixing  the 
attention  of  children  is  to  interest  them — to  mingle 
delightful  associations  with  learning, — never  to  over- 
strain their  faculties,  or  to  fatigue  them  by  keeping 
them  too  long  directed  to  one  particular  subject.  It 
seems  to  be  a  law  of  our  nature  that  when  one  faculty 
is  exhausted  by  exercise,  another  faculty  may  be  exer- 
cised without  a  sense  of  weariness.  Thus,  for  example, 
if  a  boy  is  tired  with  reading  history,  in  the  course  of 
which  a  particular  class  of  faculties  is  exercised,  such  as 


SECURING    ATTENTION   OP   CHILDREN.  133 

memory  and  reflection,  he  may,  without  any  sense  of 
weariness,  have  his  attention  directed  to  some  facts  of 
experimental  philosophy,  where  another  class  of  facul- 
ties is  called  into  activity,  such  as  perception  and  obser- 
vation. And  when  the  mental  powers  generally  are 
fatigued,  then  the  child  will  feel  the  highest  enjoyment 
in  exercising  his  physical  powers. 

A  good  collective  lesson  should  not  only  engage  the 
attention  by  the  interest  which  it  awakens,  but  it  should 
further  intensify  the  attention  by  stimulating  the  prin- 
ciples of  emulation  and  sympathy.  The  most  healthful 
motives  to  application  are  supplied  by  the  peculiar  nature 
and  form  of  our  instruction. 

When  a  boy  gets  fatigued,  or  overtasked  with  any 
subject,  he  instinctively  seeks  for  enjoyment  in  talking 
or  in  play;  this  want  of  attention  the  grave  preceptor 
calls  idleness  and  mischief;  but  the  boy  is  right  and  the 
master  wrong;  the  boy  is  only  acting  in  accordance  with 
the  intentions  of  his  Creator;  while  the  master  is  stupidly, 
ay,  and  impiously  if  it  were  not  stupidly,  acting  contrary 
to  these  intentions.  If  the  master  would  teach  in  accord- 
ance with  the  general  principles  which  we  have  endeav- 
ored to  expound,  the  boy  would  never  play  when  he  should 
be  at  work,  or  allow  his  mind  to  wander  in  search  of 
enjoyment,  when  a  full  measure  of  rational  pleasure  is 
afforded  him  by  instruction. 

With  children  the  pleasure  derived  from  instruction 
should  be  regarded  as  the  chief  actuating  motive  to  at- 
tention. The  too  frequent  use  of  such  incitements  as 
praise,  emulation,  rewards,  etc.,  demoralizes  the  charac- 
ter by  bringing  the  selfish  feelings  too  often  into  exer- 


134  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

cise.  These  motives  tend  to  foster  vanity,  pride,  envy, 
and  other  selfish  emotions. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  attention  of  the  chil- 
dren is  not  withdrawn  from  the  lessons  by  any  extrane- 
ous noise,  by  the  presence  of  too  many  visitors,  or  by 
any  other  cause.  To  secure  these  conditions,  the  school- 
room should  be  in  a  quiet  spot,  and  its  fittings 
should  be  such  as  to  place  the  teacher  in  the  most  favor- 
able position  with  respect  to  his  pupils.  Sometimes 
schools  are  built  beneath  railways,  over  livery  stables 
and  workshops,  and  even  undeTneath  burial  grounds; 
how  can  the  founders  of  such  schools  expect  their  master 
to  teach  efficiently? 

These  remarkable  laws  of  our  physical  and  moral 
nature  give  us 

The  Principles  upon  which  School  Routines  are  based. 

1.  The  subjects  of  the  routine  should  be  specially 
adapted  to  the  capacities  of  the  children  in  each  class. 

2.  The  whole,  or  absolute  time,  devoted  to  any  par- 
ticular subject  should  be  in  proportion  to  its  relative  im- 
portance and  its  adaptation  to  the  minds  of  the  children 
in  the  particular  class. 

3.  The  period  given  continuously  to  any  subject 
should  be  longer  or  shorter,  accordingly  as  the  subject  is 
less  or  more  fatiguing  to  the  minds  of  the  pupils. 

4.  The  order  of  succession  of  the  subjects  of  the 
routine  should  have  a  special  regard  to  the  faculties  that 
are  brought  into  activity  by  those  subjects. 

No  two  lessons  should  come  in  succession  which  exer- 
cise the  same  faculties:  thus,  for  example,  it  would  be 


PRELIMINARY    LESSONS.  135 

erroneous  to  have  a  lesson  on  arithmetic  immediately 
after  a  lesson  on  algebra,  or  a  lesson  on  history  after  a 
lesson  on  the  Scriptures.  The  subjects  which  follow  each 
other  in  the  order  of  succession  should  not  only  exercise 
different  faculties,  but  there  should  be  a  variety  in  the 
form  and  kind  of  the  exercises  themselves:  thus,  for  ex- 
ample, arithmetic  may  be  taught  after  grammar,  or  after 
history;  and  writing,  or  reading,  or  music,  may  be  taught 
after  arithmetic. 

5.  In  a  well  organized  school,  the  routines  of  the  re- 
spective classes  will  be  framed  to  suit  one  another,  so 
that  the  work  going  on  in  one  class  may  not  interfere  or 
jar  with  the  work  going  on  in  the  adjacent  classes. 
Thus,  while  a  lesson  which  is  necessarily  associated  with 
a  certain  amount  of  noise  is  being  given  to  one  class, 
the  adjacent  classes  should  have  lesons  given  to  them 
which  are  accompanied  with  comparative  silence;  for 
example,  while  a  reading  lesson  is  being  given  to  one 
class,  a  writing  or  a  drawing  lesson  may  at  the  same  time 
be  given  to  the  adjacent  classes. 

With  a  due  attention  to  these  principles  in  the  con- 
struction of  routines,  a  large  school  may  be  maintained 
in  an  harmonious  condition  of  activity  and  progress, 
without  any  unnecessary  noise  or  confusion. 

It  is  desirable  that  we  should  here  make  a  few  addi- 
tional observations  relative  to  the  subject  of 

First  or  Preliminary  Lessons. 

First  lessons  should  embrace  the  prominent  features 
of  the  subject  without  entering  into  its  details, — they 
should  be  comprehensive  without  being  profound. 
Children  like  to  disport  themselves  in  the  stream  of 


136  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

knowleclge,  without  wishing  to  be  plunged  into  its 
depths.  The  knowledge  conveyed  to  children  must  at 
first  be  only  supei'ficial;  like  little  butterflies  in  the 
sunshine,  they  like  to  taste  the  sweets  of  every  flower. 
We  assert,  in  spite  of  the  frown  which  we  imagine  to  be 
gathering  on  the  brow  of  the  so-called  methodical 
teacher,  that,  with  little  children,  tkue  teaching  must 
BE  superficial  TEACHING.  But  it  docs  not  follow  from 
this  that  a  true  teacher  is  a  superficial  teacher;  he  must 
have  great  skill  and  judgment,  united  with  a  comprehen- 
sive knowledge  of  the  subject-matter  of  instruction,  in 
order  that  he  may  be  able  to  select  from  the  whole  mass 
of  knowledge  the  parts  which  are  best  calculated  to  in- 
terest his  pupils,  and  at  the  same  time  to  lay  the  foun- 
dation of  a  higher  and  subsequent  course  of  instruction. 

It  is  important  that  we  should  make  a  distinction  be- 
tween the  method  by  which  the  master  actually  teaches, 
and  the  mental  process  by  which  he  arrives  at  the  prin- 
ciples which  should  be  followed  in  that  method.  While 
he  gives  a  Tesson  to  his  pupils  by  the  method  of  synthe- 
sis, the  arrangements  of  the  parts,  &c.,  of  that  lesson 
must  be  the  result  of  analysis. 

But  in  our  first  lessons  to  little  children,  there  must  be 
a  great  deal  of  desultory  teaching.  Their  appetite  for 
new  facts  or  novelties  is  so  gieat  that  they  cannot  dwell 
long  upon  each.  The  world  to  them  is  full  of  wonders, 
and  nothing  gives  them  more  pleasure  than  to  witness 
these  wonders.  Their  instincts  lead  them  to  expect  that 
there  is  much  that  is  wonderful  in  the  works  of  nature, 
as  well  as  of  art.  Their  Creator,  as  we  before  observed, 
has  placed  them  in  a  world  where  everything  tends  to 
develop   and    elevate  their   faculties.     There   is   not  a 


PRELIMINARY   LESSONS.  137 

greater  harmony  subsisting  between  the  mind  of  the 
musician  and  the  tones  of  his  instrument  than  there  ex- 
ists between  the  soul  of  the  child  and  the  constitution 
of  external  nature, — the  one  has  been  made  for  the 
other.  The  intelligent  instructor  will  not  fail  to  turn  to 
account  this  love  of  the  wonderful.  A  child  looks 
through  a  telescope:  how  wonderful  to  hira  is  the  sight, 
— he  sees  the  far  distant  towers  and  trees  as  plainly  as 
if  they  were  close  before  him  !  Do  not  mar  the  impres- 
sions thus  produced  upon  his  mind,  by  attempting  to 
explain  the  causes, — let  these  impressions  remain  as  facts 
of  science,  which  he  will  afterwards  understand;  he 
knows  enough  if  he  is  told  that  a  telescope  is  made  of 
certain  round-shaped  pieces  of  glass  put  into  a  tube;  no 
disparagement  to  his  intellect,  if  he  does  not  know  any- 
thing further  about  the  cause  of  the  effects.  A  child 
expects,  from  the  very  constitution  of  his  nature,  to  see 
many  things  which  he  cannot  comprehend;  but  effects 
and  facts  he  can  appreciate,  jmd  that  is  enough  for  him 
at  the  first  stage  of  his  instruction.  Such  facts  are  seeds 
which  time  will  cause  to  germinate  and  ripen.  Show  a 
child  the  appearance  of  a  drop  of  stagnant  water  through 
a  microscope  !  How  wonderful  to  him  is  the  sight !  That 
little  drop  is  teeming  with  animal  life  !  In  like  manner, 
many  other  wonderful  facts  in  connection  with  natural 
and  experimental  philosophy  may  be  taught  to  the 
child. 

Our  instruction  should  often  assume  the  form  of  nar- 
ratives; for  children  feel  a  peculiar  pleasure  in  hearing 
stories  about  animals,  or  about  the  lives  of  little  children 
like  themselves,  or  about  the  adventures  of  remarkable 
men.     A  well-told  story  may  not  only  convey  much  val- 


138  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

ual»le  knowledge  to  a  cliiUl,  but  may  also  Inculcate  many 
practical  principles  of  action. 

Religion  should  be  taught,  to  a  great  extent,  in  the 
same  way :  Newton,  who  uncovered  his  head  when  the 
name  of  God  was  uttered,  would  have  taught  religion  to 
children  without  giving  expression  to  a  word.  Vital 
religion,  says  Richter,  grows  not  by  the  doctrines  of  the 
Bible  so  much  as  by  its  narratives;  the  best  Christian 
doctrine  is  the  life  of  Christ,  and  after  that  the  suffer- 
ings and  deaths  of  his  followers. 

Instruction  should^  as  far  as  possihle^  he  associated  with  amuse- 
ment;  in  the  hands  of  good  teachers,  toys,  games,  and 
pictures  will  become  important  instruments  of  intellec- 
tual culture.  This  subject  naturally  leads  us  to  say  a 
few  words  respecting 

The  Infant  School  System. 

In  the  Infant  school,  instruction  should  never  be  sep- 
arated from  amusement  and  enjoyment.  The  acquisi- 
tion of  knowledge  must  be  pursued  as  an  amusement, 
and  even  the  learning  to  read  should  have  its  pleasant 
associations.  The  great  object  of  the  infant  school 
teacher  should  be  to  cultivate  the  faculties  of  the  chil- 
dren by  gratifying  their  virtuous  instincts.  It  is,  how- 
ever, much  to  be  regretted  that  many  infant  school 
teachers  have  attempted  to  introduce  graver  subjects  of 
instruction;  better  let  a  child  of  four  or  five  years  of 
age  romp  and  play  in  the  fields,  than  allow  him  to  be 
cooped  up  for  the  purpose  of  committing  some  dull  task 
to  memory. 

Children  at  their  games  are  learning: — they  are  insensibly 
becoming  acquainted  with  themselves,  with  the  charac- 


INFANT  SCHOOL  STSTEM.  139 

ters  of  their  playfellows,  and  with  the  properties  and 
uses  of  external  things.  Children  teach  one  another, 
not  only  formally  and  directly,  but  also  unconsciously 
and  indirectly.  One  boy  shows  another  boy  how  to 
make  duck  and  drake  upon  the  water, — how  to  fly  a 
kite, — how  to  construct  a  sling,  or  a  pop-gun,  or  a  whis- 
tle, or  a  variety  of  other  infantine  pieces  of  apparatus. 
And  we  consider  that  one  of  the  most  essential,  probably 
one  of  the  most  indispensable,  forms  of  juvenile  instruc- 
tion is  THE  BOY  TEACHING  THE  BOY;  the  gravity  of  man- 
hood often  breaks  the  enchantment  with  which  infan- 
tine knowledge  is  invested. 

Our  instructions  should  have  a  constant  regard  to 
health,  physical  development,  and  enjoyment.  Children 
are  happy  little  things, — they  have  no  regret  for  the 
past,  no  care  for  the  present,  and  no  fear  for  the  future, — 
they  are  in  the  spring  time  of  their  existence;  the  pres- 
ent is  all  enjoyment,  and  hope  sheds  an  enchanting  halo 
over  the  days  that  are  to  come.  Who  does  not  feel  sad 
when  he  reflects  that  these  joyous  days  are  gone  for 
ever  ?  Look  at  the  early  spring  birds  as  they  skip  and 
fly  from  twig  to'  twig, — up  higher  and  higher  still  among 
the  green  branches, — in  the  fulness  of  their  joy,  they 
chatter  to  each  other  and  fill  the  woods  with  song, — 
beautiful  little  creatures !  you  remind  me  of  happy, 
playful  childhood, — your  joys  are  as  brilliant  as  they  are 
fleeting.  Ruthlesa  man!  cast  no  shadow  over  this  sunny 
period  of  the  children's  existence  !  let  them  enjoy  the 
bliss  of  this  transient  period,  as  their  God  has  ordained, — 
let  them  frisk  and  play, — they  are  doing  more  for  them- 
selves than  you  can  do  for  them;  for  while  they  seek 
their  enjoyment  as  an  end,  the  Creator  has  ordained  that 


140  PHILOSOPHY   OF    EDUCATION. 

this  desire  for  enjoyment  shall  be  the  means  of  develop- 
ing their  physical,  intellectual,  and  moral  faculties:  they 
are  thus  unconsciously  working  out  the  end  of  their 
creation  with  far  more  certainty  than  if  they  were  fet- 
tered by  the  leading  strings  of  a  nursery  maid,  or  placed 
under  the  stern  supervision  of  a  rigid  pedagogue. 

This  leads  us  further  to  observe  that  we  should  en- 
deavor to 

Avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  the  Imposition  of  Tasks. 

Nothing  should  be  rendered  a  task  which  can  be  as 
well  or  better  taught  by  actual  teaching  on  the  part  of 
the  master,  or  which  may  be  acquired  by  a  repetition  of 
voluntary  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  The  task 
SYSTEM  invests  learning  with  unpleasant  associations, 
and  renders  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  a  painful  and 
soul-debasing  infliction,  instead  of  a  healthful  and  in- 
vigorating exercise  for  the  faculties.  These  inflictions 
are  remembered  by  us  to  the  latest  hour  of  our  existence. 
On  this  subject  Locke  observes:  '*  None  of  the  things 
they  are  to  learn  should  ever  be  made  a  burden  to  them, 
or  imposed  on  them  as  a  task.  Whatever  is  so  pro- 
posed, presently  becomes  irksome:  the  mind  takes  an 
aversion  to  it,  though  before  it  were  a  thing  of  delight 
or  indifference.  Let  a  child  be  but  ordered  to  whip  his 
top  at  a  certain  time  of  the  day,  whether  he  has  or  has 
not  a  mind  to  it;  let  this  be  but  required  of  him  as  a 
task,  wherein  he  must  spend  so  many  hours  morning 
and  afternoon,  and  see  whether  he  will  not  soon  be  weary 
of  any  play  at  this  rate.  Is  it  not  so  with  grown  men  ? 
What  they  do  cheerfully  of  themselves,  do  they  not 
presently  grow  sick  of,  and  can  no  more  endure,  as  soon 


SCHOOL    DISCIPLINE.  141 

as  they  find  it  is  expected  of  them  as  a  task  ?  Children 
have  as  much  a  mind  to  show  that  they  are  free,  that 
their  own  good  actions  come  from  themselves,  that  they 
are  absolute  and  independent  as  any  of  the  proudest  of 
you  grown  men,  think  of  them  as  you  please." 
Let  us  now  consider  the  subject  of 

School  Discipline. 

We  have  stated,  as  a  corollary  to  our  general  axiom, 
that  a  teacher  should  govern  his  pupils  by  the  principle 
of  love  rather  than  that  of  fear. 

The  great  ruling  principle  in  a  school  should  he  love.  As  a 
first  great  step  to  the  establishment  of  discipline,  the 
master  should  really  love  his  pupils.  Love  them  !  Can 
tlie  genteel,  well-dressed  teacher  love  those  little  rag- 
ged, vagabond -looking  boys,  gathered  from  all  the 
filthy  streets  and  alleys  of  this  crowded  city  ?  Love 
them  !  Why  not  ?  The  most  dirty  of  them  all  has  an 
immortal  and  accountable  soul,  capable  of  comprehend- 
ing the  works  of  his  Creator.  Love  them  !  The  Chris- 
tian teacher  must  love  them, — Jesus  died  for  them,  not 
less  than  for  the  offspring  of  the  rich;  and  it  was  re- 
specting such  children  that  He  said,  "Suffer  little  chil- 
dren to  come  unto  me  and  forbid  them  not,  for  of  such 
is  the  kingdom  of  heaven."  Now,  as  love  always  begets 
love,  if  the  master  really  loves  his  pupils,  they  in  return 
will  love  him.  But  if  they  love  their  master,  they  will 
also  endeavor  to  please  him,  and  to  avoid  doing  anything 
which  is  calculated  to  give  him  pain.  In  this  way  the 
master's  will  becomes  the  rule  of  the  school;  and  as 
children  necessarily  imitate  those  whom  they  love  and 
respect,  the  master's  character  becomes  the  liAw  of 


142  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

the  school.  Even  some  of  our  domesticated  animals  are 
best  governed  by  kindness.  In  the  government  of  a 
school,  the  greatest  of  all  ends  is  to  lead  the  children  to 
love  what  is  good  and  hate  what  is  evil, — to  follow 
virtue  and  shun  vice. 

The  principle  of  love  should  pervade  the  whole  school, 
and  the  teacher  should  embrace  every  opportunity  for 
cultivating  the  benevolent  affections  of  the  children  by 
acts  of  kindness  and  practical  lessons  of  love.  Love, 
like  the  light  of  heaven,  irradiates  and  beautifies  what- 
ever it  touches;  fear,  like  darkness,  invests  everything 
with  gloom.  Love  one  another  is  the  precept  of  the 
Great  Teacher.  Love  is  the  most  powerful  principle  in 
our  nature, — it  reigns  in  heaven,  for  God  is  love, — it 
would  change  hell  into  heaven,  and  earth  into  a  prime- 
val jmradise.  If  this  i)rinciple  were  fully  developed  in 
a  school,  the  child  would  perform  its  duty  for  the  love 
of  it,  and  not  from  the  fear  of  punishment  or  the  hope 
of  reward. 

Fear  should  never  he  a  ruling  principle  in  a  school.  No 
school  can  be  in  a  healthy  condition  where  the  children 
are  governed  mainly  by  the  fear  of  punishment.  Fear 
is  an  enfeebling  passion, — it  paralyzes  the  intellect, 
— it  makes  boys  deceitful,  slavish,  and  hypocritical, — it 
is  the  last  and  lowest  motive  which  can  actuate  a  human 
being  for  good.  The  prison  and  the  gallows  are  made  to 
frighten  wretches,  sunk  to  the  lowest  depths  of  moral 
degradation,  from  the  commission  of  crime.  Punish- 
ments may  check  the  progress  of  vice,  but  they  cannot 
foster  the  principle  of  virtue.  Capital  punishments, 
especially  when  they  are  nuinero\is  and  unmerited,  be- 
token a  disastrous  condition  of  a  state — they  are  fre- 


SCHOOL    DISCIPLINE.  143 

quently  the  hideous  forerunners  of  anarchy,  or  the  fear- 
ful epilogues  of  some  national  tragedy.  So,  in  like 
manner,  the  prevalence  of  punishments,  or  a  slavish 
dread  of  the  master,  in  a  school,  is  a  sure  indication  of 
mismanagement  and  instability.  That  unnatural  still- 
ness in  a  school,  which  proceeds  from  fear,  is  like  the 
deceitful  calm  which  presages  the  outbreak  of  the  tem- 
pest; without  the  warning  of  a  moment,  the  pent-up 
passions  may  burst  away  the  barriers  by  which  they  are 
restrained. 

Many  teachers,  especially  of  the  old  school,  have  an 
unfortunate  love  of  despotic  authority, — their  birch  is 
their  sceptre,  and  their  antiquated  stool  is  their  throne. 
This  mischievous  propensity,  no  doubt,  in  a  great  meas- 
ure proceeds  from  the  circumstance  that  it  is  easier  to 
command  than  to  persuade,  and  that  it  is  less  troublesome 
to  maintain  order  in  a  school  by  the  terror  of  the  rod 
than  by  the  force  of  reason  and  moral  suasion.  But  if 
teachers  would  give  only  half  the  attention  to  the  pre- 
vention of  faults  that  they  at  present  give  to  the  punishment 
of  them,  the  labor  of  teaching  would  not  only  be  rendered 
more  pleasant,  but  also,  in  the  long  run,  more  easy.  As 
prevention  is  always  better  than  cure,  so  we  should 
especially  look  to  the  causes  of  disorder,  and  the  best 
means  of  avoiding  them.  The  course  of  a  stream  is  best 
changed  by  cutting  off  the  fountain:  in  like  manner  the 
current  of  disorder  is  most  effectually  stayed  by  drying 
up  its  sources.  Harsh  modes  of  discipline  are  necessarily 
associated  with  unnatural  modes  of  instruction. 

If  kindness,  moral  suasion,  and  the  inculcation  of  re- 
ligious principle  fail  in  reclaiming  a  boy,  then  as  a  last 
hope  the  master  must  of  necessity  have  recourse  to  pun- 


144  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

ishment;  but  even  in  the  act  of  punisliment,  the  master 
should  show  that  he  is  actuated  by  an  earnest  love  for 
the  transgressor.  As  crimes,  in  most  cases,  bring  their 
own  punishment,  so  youthful  offenders  may  be  often  left 
to  correct  themselves,  after  having  suffered  the  conse- 
quences of  their  faults.  The  public  opinion  of  a  school, 
when  ])roperly  developed,  is  also  a  great  check  to  the 
commission  of  crime,  as  well  as  an  important  aid  in  the 
cultivation  of  habits  of  virtue. 

The  formal  rules  of  a  school  should  be  few  and  well 
chosen,  and  their  observance  should  always  be  promptly 
enforced.  A  teacher  should  never  magnify  a  fault  into 
a  crime,  or  allow  the  punishment  to  exceed  the  offence. 
As  the  possession  of  natural  gifts  does  not  merit  reward, 
so  the  want  of  them  cannot  deserve  punishment.  Talents 
should  not  always  be  the  subject  of  commendation,  or 
dulness  the  object  of  censure;  for  a  boy  may  be  dull  in 
spite  of  his  application,  while  another  may  possess  tal- 
ents without  industry. 

XV.  Every  subject  should  he  taught  thoroughly^  at  least  as  far 
as  the  nature  of  the  subject  and  the  capabilities  of  the  pupils 
will  allow.  They  should  learn  nothing  which  they  may  have 
afterwards  to  unlearn. 

Strictly  speaking,  this  general  princi])le  should  have 
formed  a  corollary  to  our  twelfth  axiom;  but  with  the 
view  of  guarding  against  misapprehension,  we  here  give 
it  as  a  distinct  subject  of  discussion.  No  principle  of 
education  has  been  more  abused  than  this;  its  specious 
name  gives  currency  to  a  false  coinage. 

Perfect  knowledge  is  only  a  relative  term,  for,  abso- 
lutely considered,  we  can  never  know  anytiiing  perfectly; 


THOROUGH   TEACHING   INDISPENSABLE.  145 

however,  we  may  aim  at  perfection,  although  we  may 
not  hope  to  reach  it.  By  teaching  a  subject  thoroughly, 
therefore,  we  simply  mean  that  the  information  which 
we  communicate  to  our  pupils  should  be  complete  and 
exact,  as  far  as  it  extends,  and  that  we  should  not  rest 
satisfied  until  it  is  fixed  in  their  minds;  at  the  same 
time,  we  should  not  attempt  to  push  our  instruction  be- 
yond their  capabilities,  nor  deceive  ourselves  with  the 
idea  that  we  have  taught  anything  thoroughly,  which  has 
been  merely  learnt  by  rote.  The  most  imperfect  and 
fruitless  kind  of  teaching  is  that  where  the  master 
attempts  to  convey  a  perfect  knowledge  of  all  the  parts 
of  a  subject,  before  the  faculties  of  his  pupils  are  pre- 
pared for  grasping  such  an  amount  of  knowledge.  A  little 
knowledge,  fully  understood  and  thoroughly  digested, 
creates  intellectual  power.  The  amount  of  knowledge 
fixed  in  the  mind  is  not  of  so  much  account  as  the  ideas 
which  are  evolved  by  the  intellectual  process  of  elabora- 
tion. 

To  teach  a  suhjed  tlioroughly^  we  should  teach  it  from  facts 
and  principles,  and  not  from  formulae  and  rules;  the  subject 
should  he  learnt  gradually,  and  its  varied  aspects  should  be 
allowed  to  unfold  themselves,  as  the  intellect  of  the 
learner  becomes  more  and  more  ripened  and  developed. 
If  we  wish  to  rear  a  lofty  structure,  we  should  look  well 
to  the  foundations,  and  the  superstructure  should  be 
built  up  gradually,  and  all  its  parts  be  allowed  to  be- 
come duly  consolidated  by  time.  We  should  not  aim 
too  much  at  immediate  results,  or  attempt  to  crowd  the 
labor  of  years  into  a  single  day.  If  we  demand  too 
much  at  once  of  our  pupils,  we  are  almost  sure  to  receive 
from  them  much  less  than  we  might  reasonably  claim. 


146  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

Whatever  a  teacher  may  require  his  pupils  to  do,  lie 
should  see  that  tlie  thing  is  done  with  a  suitable  degree 
of  finish  and  exactness;  at  the  same  time, he  should  bear 
in  mind  that  the  power  to  do  a  thing  perfectly  can  only 
be  acquired  by  repeated  efforts.  As  no  man  ever  yet 
became  learned  in  any  subject  by  reading  one  book 
upon  it,  so  the  teacher  should  not  expect  his  pupils  to  learn 
any  department  of  a  subject  thoroughly,  until  he  has  di- 
rected their  minds  to  it  again  and  again,  giving  them  at 
each  recurrence  more  and  more  enlarged  views  of  it. 
Owing  to  the  inseparable  connection  subsisting  between 
the  different  branches  of  a  subject,  our  knowledge  of  it 
must  be  comprehensive  before  it  can  become  exact  in  all 
its  details, — the  outline  of  the  subject  must  be  first  rough 
hewn  before  the  delicate  touches  of  finish  can  be  applied 
to  it.  Faraday,  it  is  said,  began  the  study  of  chemistry 
by  reading  Blair's  catechism;  and  Newton's  first  book 
of  mathematics  was  Barrow's  easy  course  of  geometry. 
One  of  the  best  means  of  teaching  a  subject  thor- 
oughly is  the 

Reproduction  of  Lessons. 

The  ideas  which  we  convey  to  a  cliild  are  of  little  im- 
portance, compared  witli  the  benefits  arising  from  the 
vigorous  exercise  of  his  powers  in  reproducing,  arrang- 
ing, or  combining  these  ideas.  The  knowledge  which 
we  convey  to  our  pupils  is  the  ore  thrown  into  the  cruci- 
ble; but  the  knowledge  which  we  draw  from  them  is  the 
gold  after  it  has  been  elaborated  and  refined. 

Reading,  says  Bacon,  makes  a  full  man,  conversation 
a  ready  nian,  and  writing  an  exact  man.  In  order  to 
give  cliiMn'n  a  readiness  of  expression,  they  should  be 


EXAMPLES    AND    APPLICATIONS.  147 

accustomed  to  relate,  in  their  own  language,  whatever 
they  may  have  seen,  read,  or  heard;  this  will  also  in- 
duce habits  of  attention  and  reflection,  and  will  show 
them  how  the  ideas  of  others  may  reall)^  become  their 
own.  This  may  be  made  one  of  our  first  lessons  in  lan- 
guage. But  one  of  the  highest  forms  of  instruction,  in 
an  elementary  school,  is  to  require  the  pupils  to  repro- 
duce, in  writing^  the  lessons  which  may  have  been  read 
by  themselves  in  a  class  book,  or  which  may  have  been 
given  to  them  orally  by  the  master.  This  exercise  not 
only  thoroughly  fixes  the  subject  in  the  mind  of  the 
pupil,  but,  if  properly  carried  out,  forms,  at  the  same 
time,  one  of  the  best  lessons  in  spelling,  penmanship, 
and  composition.  With  the  view  of  sustaining  a  proper 
tone  of  mental  activity,  dispatch,  not  less  than  accuracy, 
should  be  looked  to  in  these  exercises. 

In  order  to  teach  general  principles  thoroughly,  we 
should  give 

Examples  and  Applications. 

Children,  even  at  an  early  age,  instinctively  ask  us — 
What  use  is  that  thing?  Let  us  see  it  in  nature.  Their 
minds  cannot  sufficiently  grasp  a  general  proposition 
apart  from  the  things  to  which  it  applies.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  in  relation  to  all  subjects  of  calculation  and 
science;  here  the  child  readily  understands  the  exam- 
ple or  the  fact,  when  he  has  not  the  slightest  compre- 
hension of  the  rule  or  the  law.  In  morals,  too,  the  child 
w  ill  readily  understand  the  nature  of  stealing  from  the 
narrative  of  some  juvenile  culprit,  while  he  would  be 
perfectly  mystified  by  some  grave  and  dogmatic  disqui- 
sition on  the  principle  of  honesty.     Generally  speaking, 


148  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

the  most  talented  boys  in  a  school  will  not  give  an  earn- 
est attention  to  a  subject  until  they  have  been  shown  its 
utility,  that  is,  until  they  have  been  shown  some  of  its 
applications;  such  boys  will  not  take  everything  on  the 
mere  authority  of  their  master,  especially  if  the  thing 
is  within  the  range  of  their  comprehension, — they  must 
see  and  understand  the  matter  for  themselves. 

Without  underrating  or  evading  tlie  difficulties  of  the  subject^ 
our  explanations  should  he  clear  and  simple.  IFe  should  avoid  a 
slavish  me  of  text-hooks. 

The  teacher  should  constantly  bear  in  mind  that  what 
is  perfectly  easy  to  him  may  be  really  very  difficult  to 
his  pupils;  so  that,  after  all  he  may  have  done  to  render 
a  subject  clear  and  simple,  his  pupils  may  find  it  diffi- 
cult enough  for  their  comprehension.  It  is  a  mistake, 
therefore,  for  a  tenclier  to  tell  his  pupils  that  he  has 
made  a  subject  perfectly  easy,  thereby  intimating  that 
he  neither  ai)preciates  their  efforts,  nor  expects  them 
to  apply  themselves  vigorously  to  the  subject.  If  a 
teacher  cannot  give  a  clear  exposition  of  a  subject,  he 
had  better  leave  the  matter  in  the  hands  of  his  pupils; 
a  complex  or  learned  exposition  is  often  productive  of 
irremediable  evils.  The  system  of  Jacotot,  which  re- 
quires the  pupil  to  lenrn  every  subject,  as  well  as  every 
branch  of  a  subject,  thoroughly  before  he  leaves  it,  has 
been  carried  to  a  ridiculous  extreme  by  many  educators. 
According  to  them,  the  easiest  way  of  learning  a  subject 
is  not  the  hest  way;  for  the  main  business  of  education  is 
not  so  much  to  infuse  knowledge  as  to  develop  power. 
The  fallacy  of  this  system  is  at  once  shown  by  the  fact  that 
it  does  not  answer  the  end  which  it  professes  to  accomplish; 


ADVANTAGES  OF  SIMPLICITY  IN  TEACHING.  149 

for  we  hold  it  to  be  a  well  established  law  of  our  intel- 
lectual nature,  that  the  faculties  are  best  cultivated  by 
those  exercises  which  are  apportioned  to  their  strength, 
and  not  by  straining  them  to  their  utmost  tension.  If  a 
subject,  or  any  particular  department  of  a  subject,  is 
taught  thoroughly,  that  is,  from  facts  and  principles, 
and  not  by  rote,  it  is  impossible  to  simplify  it  too  much, 
or  to  impair  its  efficiency  as  an  instrument  of  intellectual 
culture.  The  good  teacher  will  constantly  endeavor  to 
lead  his  pupils  in  the  royal  road  to  learning, — that  is 
to  say,  he  will  try  to  make  the  road  easy  and  pleasant, — 
he  will  cut  off  its  tortuous  windings,  macadamize  it,  and 
remove  all  unnecessary  obstacles, — he  will  not  create 
difficulties  for  the  mere  sake  of  trying  the  strength  of 
his  pupils,  nor  tax  their  endurance  for  the  purpose  of 
inculcating  patience  and  humility.  The  little,  pedantic 
mind  delights  itself  in  trifling  with  difficulties,  and  in 
making  difficulties  of  trifles;  the  superior  mind  invests 
every  subject  with  its  own  comprehensiveness  and  logi- 
cal simplicity.  A  good  teacher  never  darkens  counsel 
by  words,  or  obtrudes  the  intricacies  of  a  subject  for  the 
purpose  of  exhibiting  his  own  power. 

Why  has  mathematics  hitherto  been  considered  too 
difficult  for  ordinary  boys  to  understand?  Simply  be- 
cause some  Pom  Asinorum  is  thrown  in  their  way  at  an 
early  stage  of  their  progress,^— because  abstract  propo- 
sitions are  taught  apart  from  their  application;  and  be- 
cause in  place  of  having  to  learn  the  simple  fundamental 
laws  of  quantity,  the  boy  is  required  to  deal  with  sym- 
bols involved  with  roots  upon  roots  and  operations 
within  operations.  You  may  as  well  teach  boys  history 
from  Lingard,  grammar  from  Home  Tooke,  or  drawing 


150  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

from  the  cartoons  of  Raphael,  as  attempt  to  teach  them 
geometry  from  Euclid,  or  arithmetic  and  algebra  from 
some  learned  work  which  professes  to  be  at  once  a  class 
book  of  the  university  and  a  manual  of  the  school-room. 

No  man  will  teach  a  subject  thoroughly  if  he  restricts 
himself  to  the  use  of  a  particular  class  book,  more  espe- 
cially if  it  be  a  so-called  perfect  class  book,  for  a  com- 
plete work  upon  any  subject  is  certainly  not  the  best 
book  to  begin  with.  Alas  for  education  !  if  ever  the 
examinations  of  our  schools  and  training  colleges  should 
be  based  upon  an  invariable  order  of  text-books.  Under 
such  an  arrangement,  education  would  become  a  recog- 
nized system  of  cramming, — a  prescribed  amount  of 
knowledge  would  be  got  up,  no  matter  by  what  means, 
provided  the  end  should  be  attained.  We  hold  that  ex- 
aminations should  test  the  development  of  power,  rather 
than  the  acquisition  of  knowledge;  but  such  a  plan  of 
examination  would  ignore  this  development.  The  mind 
filled  with  knowledge  in  this  way  has  been  compared  to 
a  well-filled  granary,  but  bears  no  resemblance  to  the 
fruitful  field  which  multiplies  a  hundred-fold  that  which 
is  thrown  upon  it. 

This  overweening  attachment  to  text-books,  and  to  a 
so-called  thorough  education,  leads  to  the  neglect  of  gen- 
eral knowledge  as  well  as  of  the  development  of  power. 
Its  tendency  is  to  confine  general  education  within  very 
narrow  limits,  and  to  restrict  elementary  instruction  to 
the  mere  rudiments  of  knowledge.*  It  gives  us  the  dry 
bones  of  the  body  of  education,  without  the  flesh,  and 
the  warm  blood,  and  the  vital  principle — the  principle  of 

*In  this  respect  we  are  certainly  much  in  advance  of  our  American 
brethren. 


SLAVISH  USE  OF  TEXT-BOOKS  TO  BE  AVOIDED.         151 

intellectual  and  moral  life,  of  growth  and  development. 
Instead  of  cramming  his  pupils  with  all  the  minute 
details  of  a  subject,  the  truly  methodical  teacher  will 
rather  seek  to  develop  in  them  a  power  of  working  out 
the  details  of  a  subject  for  themselves;  he  has  a  far  sub- 
limer  object  in  view  than  the  slavish  adhesion  to  the  cut 
and  dried  forms  of  a  text-book;  he  may  not  teach  any 
particular  science  thoroughly  in  all  its  technical  details, 
but  he  seeks  to  effect  a  far  higher  end,  to  develop  in 
them  that  power  which  may,  at  some  future  period,  not 
merely  enable  them  to  Tcnow  a  science,  but  to  create  a 
science.  The  drudgery  connected  with  the  details  of 
some  departments  of  knowledge  often  exercises  an  uh- 
healthy  influence  upon  the  mind;  for  example,  the  com- 
mitting to  memory  long  catalogues  of  words,  the  exact 
dates  of  historical  events,  the  lengths  and  breadths  of 
countries,  etc.,  tends  to  stultify  the  intellect  of  the  pupil 
and  to  withdraw  him  from  the  contemplation  of  more 
interesting  facts  and  principles. 

It  must,  however,  be  admitted  that  if  a  boy  is  to  re- 
main only  a  short  period  at  school,  he  had  better  learn 
a  little  well  than  a  great  deal  badly:  the  first  rudiments 
of  knowledge,  comprising  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic, should  above  all  things  be  fairly  learnt  by  him 
before  he  leaves  school;  for  a  knowledge  of  these  first 
rudiments  becomes  to  him  the  great  instrument  of  future 
development  and  acquisition. 

On  the  injudicious  use  of  books,  Woodbridge  ob- 
serves:— 

"  It  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  conduct  the  pupil 
in  such  a  manner  that  he  will  not  afterwards  be  con- 
tented  without  a  thorough    knowledge    of   everything 


152  PHILOSOPHY   OF   EDUCATION. 

within  his  reach.  It  is  in  this  view  important  not  to 
allow  him  to  devote  too  much  of  his  time  to  mere  read- 
ing. It  is  easy  to  read  and  to  amuse  ourselves  in  this 
manner  without  understanding  thoroughly  what  we 
read.  There  is  a  constant  inducement  to  seek  that 
occupation  and  interest  in  running  over  a  number  of 
books  which  should  be  found  in  examining  deeply  every 
subject  w^hich  is  presented.  Such  reading  is  the  most 
certain  means  of  forming  superficial  students  and  super- 
ficial thinkers.  It  produces  a  disgust  for  study,  and 
renders  the  pupil  incapable  of  that  continued  and  fixed 
attention  which  is  necessary  to  success  in  more  than  one 
branch  of  knowledge;  often  in  the  course  of  reading  the 
pupil  learns  superficially  those  facts  which  form  the  most 
interesting  parts  of  his  lessons,  his  interest  in  them  is 
destroyed,  and  he  no  longer  pays  the  attention  necessary 
to  learn  the  facts  he  has  antici])ated  in  connection  with 
the  principles  they  illustrate.  If  the  books  are  not 
written  in  the  spirit  of  the  method  adopted  by  the 
teacher,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  they  will  produce  con- 
fusion in  his  mind  and  impair  his  confidence  in  his 
guide.  Fellenberg  therefore  believes  that  this  taste 
should  not  be  too  much  encouraged,  and  that,  in  a  per- 
fect system  of  education,  there  should  in  fact  be  little 
time  allowed  for  reading  There  should  be  such  ample 
provision  botli  for  instruction  and  amusement,  adapted 
to  the  capacity  and  taste  of  the  pupil,  that  it  shall  be 
(to  a  great  extent)  unnecessary  either  for  the  one  or  the 
other." 

One  of  the  most  obvious,  and  i)robably  one  of  the 
most  simple  means  of  teaching  a  subject  thoroughly,  is 
the 


REPETITION    OF   LESSONS.  153 

Repetition  or  Reiteration  of  Lessons. 

Repetition  is  said  to  be  the  main-spring  of  instruction; 
but  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  the  principle  has  sel- 
dom been  applied,  in  elementary  schools,  in  its  most 
legitimate  and  most  advantageous  form.  On  tbis  sub- 
ject Miss  Edge  worth  observes: — 

"Repetition  makes  all  operations  easy;  even  the  fa- 
tigue of  thinking  diminishes  by  habit.  That  we  may 
not  increase  the  labor  of  the  mind  unseasonably,  we 
should  watch  for  the  moment  when  habit  has  made  one 
lesson  easy,  and  then  we  may  go  forward  a  new  step. 
In  teaching  the  children  at  the  House  of  Industry  at 
Munich  to  spin.  Count  Rumford  wisely  ordered  that 
they  should  be  made  perfect  in  one  motion  before  any 
other  was  shown  to  them:  at  first  they  were  allowed 
only  to  move  the  wheel  by  the  treadle  with  their  feet; 
when,  after  sufficient  practice,  the  foot  became  perfect 
in  its  lesson,  the  hands  were  set  to  work,  and  the  chil- 
dren were  allowed  to  begin  to  spin  with  coarse  materials. 
It  is  said  these  children  make  remarkably  good  spinners. 
Madame  de  Genlis  applied  the  same  principle  in  teaching 
Adela  to  play  upon  the  harp. 

"  In  the  first  attempts  to  learn  any  new  bodily  exer- 
cise, as  fencing  or  dancing,  persons  are  not  certain  what 
muscles  they  must  use,  and  what  may  be  left  at  rest: 
they  generally  employ  those  of  which  they  have  the 
most  ready  command,  but  these  may  not  already  be  the 
muscles  which  are  really  wanted  in  the  new  operation. 
The  simplest  thing  appears  difficult  till  by  practice  we 
have  associated  the  various  slight  motions  which  ought 
to  be  combined;  we   feel   that  from  want  of  use  our 


164  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

motions  are  not  obedient  to  our  will,  and  to  supply  this 
defect  we  exert  more  strength  and  activity  than  is 
requisite.  *It  does  not  require  strength;  you  need  not 
use  so  much  force;  you  need  not  take  so  much  pains,' 
we  frequently  say  to  those  who  are  making  the  first 
painful,  awkward  attempts  at  some  simple  operation. 
Can  anything  appear  more  easy  than  knitting,  when  we 
look  at  the  dextrous  rapid  motions  of  an  experienced 
practitioner?  But  let  a  gentleman  take  up  a  lady's 
knitting  needles,  and  knitting  appears  to  him,  and  to 
all  the  spectators,  one  of  the  most  laborious  and  difficult 
operations  imaginable.  A  lady  who  is  learning  to  work 
with  a  tambour  needle  puts  her  head  down  close  to  the 
tambour  frame,  the  color  comes  into  her  face,  she  strains 
her  eyes,  all  her  faculties  are  exerted,  and  perhaps  she 
works  at  the  rate  of  three  links  a  minute.  A  week 
afterwards,  probably,  practice  has  made  the  work 
perfectly  easy;  the  same  lady  goes  rapidly  on  with  her 
work;  she  can  talk  and  laugh,  and  perhaps  even  think, 
whilst  she  works;  she  has  now  discovered  that  a  number 
of  the  motions,  and  a  great  portion  of  that  action  which 
she  thought  necessary  to  this  mighty  o})eration,  may  be 
advantageously  spared. 

"In  a  similar  manner,  in  the  exercise  of  our  minds 
upon  subjects  that  are  new  to  us,  we  generally  exert 
more  effort  than  is  necessary  or  serviceable,  and  we  conse- 
quently soon  fatigue  ourselves  without  any  advantage. 
Children,  to  whom  many  subjects  are  new,  are  often 
fatigued  by  these  overstrained  and  misplaced  efforts. 
In  these  circumstances  a  tutor  should  relieve  the  atten- 
tion by  introducing  indifferent  subjects  of  conversation; 
he  can,  by  showing   no   anxiety  himself,  either  in  his 


REPETITION   OF  LESSONS.  156 

manner  or  countenance,  relieve  his  pupils  from  any 
apprehension  of  his  displeasure,  or  of  his  contempt;  he 
can  represent  that  the  object  before  them  is  not  a  mat- 
ter of  life  and  death;  that  if  the  child  does  not  succeed 
in  the  first  trials  he  will  not  be  disgraced  in  the  opinion 
of  any  of  his  friends;  that  by  perseverance  he  will  cer- 
tainly conquer  the  difficulty;  that  it  is  of  little  conse- 
quence whether  he  understand  the  thing  in  question 
to-day  or  to-morrow:  these  considerations  will  calm  the 
over-anxious  pupil's  agitation,  and  whether  he  succeed 
or  not,  he  will  not  suffer  such  a  degree  of  pain  as  to 
disgust  him  in  his  first  attempts." 

When  a  lesson  is  repeated,  it  should  be  done  with  the 
view  of  making  the  child  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  subject-matter;  but  repetitions  are  given  chiefly  to 
load  the  memory  with  words,  without  any  regard  to  the 
enlightenment  of  the  reason.  If  the  pupils  do  not 
thoroughly  comprehend  a  lesson  which  has  been  given 
to  them,  the  teacher,  in  going  over  it  for  the  second 
time,  should  adopt  some  fresh  modes  of  illustrating  or 
demonstrating,  as  the  case  may  require,  the  leading 
ideas  contained  in  it.  By  this  means  the  monotony  of 
repetition  will  be  avoided,  and  a  new  aspect  will  be 
given  to  the  subject,  which  will  be  highly  instructive  to 
their  minds. 
Miss  Edge  worth  then  goes  on  to  observe: — 
*'  We  have  said  that  a  preceptor,  in  his  first  lessons  on 
any  new  subject,  must  submit  to  the  drudgery  of  re- 
peating his  terms  and  his  reasoning,  until  these  are 
sufficiently  familiar  to  his  pupils.  He  must,  however, 
proportion  the  number  of  his  repetitions  to  the  temper 
and  habits  of  his  pupils,  else  he  will  weary  instead  of 


156  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

strengthen  the  attention.  When  a  thing  is  clear,  let 
him  never  try  to  make  it  clearer;  when  a  thing  is  under- 
stood, not  a  word  more  of  exemplification  should  be 
added.  To  mark  precisely  the  moment  when  the  pupil 
understands  what  is  said, — the  moment  when  he  is 
master  of  the  necessary  ideas,  and,  consequently,  the 
moment  when  rej^etition  should  cease,  is,  perhaj^s,  the 
most  difficult  thing  in  the  art  of  teaching.  The  coun- 
tenance, the  eye,  the  voice  and  manner  of  the  pupil 
mark  this  instant  to  an  observant  preceptor;  but  a  pre- 
ceptor who  is  absorbed  in  his  own  ideas,  will  never 
think  of  looking  in  his  pupil's  face;  he  will  go  on  with 
his  routine  of  explanation,  whilst  his  once  lively,  atten- 
tive pupil  exhibits  opposite  to  him  the  picture  of  stupe- 
fied fatigue.  Quick,  intelligent  children,  who  have 
frequently  found  that  lessons  are  reiterated  by  a  patient 
but  injudicious  tutor,  will  learn  a  careless  mode  of 
listening  at  intervals;  they  will  say  to  themselves,  *0h, 
I  shall  hear  this  again  ! '  And  if  any  stray  thought 
comes  across  their  minds,  they  will  not  scruple  to  amuse 
themselves,  and  will  afterwards  ask  for  a  repetition  of 
the  words  or  ideas  which  they  missed  during  the  ex- 
cursion of  fancy.  When  they  hear  the  warning  adver- 
tisement of  *  certainly  for  the  last  time  this  season,'  they 
will  deem  it  time  enough  to  attend  to  the  performance. 
To  cure  them  of  this  presumption  in  favor  of  our  pa- 
tience, and  of  their  own  superlative  quickness,  w^e  should 
press  that  quickness  to  its  utmost  speed.  Whenever  we 
call  for  their  attention,  let  it  be  on  subjects  highly  inter- 
esting or  amusing,  and  let  us  give  them  but  just  suffi- 
cient time  with  their  fullest  exertion  to  catch  our  words 
and  ideas.     As  these  quick  gentlemen  are  proud  of  their 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   HABITS.  157 

rapidity  of  apprehension,  this  method  will  probably  suc- 
ceed; they  will  dread  the  disgrace  of  not  understanding 
what  is  said,  and  they  will  feel  that  they  cannot  under- 
stand unless  they  exert  prompt,  vigorous,  and  unremit- 
ted attention." 

XVI.  In  all  our  instruction  we  should  attend  to  the  cultivation 
of  halite. 

Habits,  according  to  the  old  adage,  become  a  second 
nature — they  render  labor  easy,  and  the  performance  of 
duty  a  pleasure, — they  fortify  us  against  the  contagion 
of  bad  example,  and  shield  us  from  the  force  of  sudden 
temptation.  Intellectual  habits  are  not  less  essential  to 
the  man  than  those  habits  which  have  a  relation  to 
conduct:  thus,  for  instance,  the  habit  of  working  out 
results  from  first  principles  and  not  by  rules,  exercises 
a  most  salutary  influence  in  tiie  development  of  the 
faculties  of  children. 

Habits  of  thought,  as  well  as  habits  of  conduct,  can 
be  established  only  by  time,  repetition,  and  practice. 
^Useful  habits  are  formed  gradually, — a  little  thing  done 
well  leads  the  way  to  the  performance  of  a  greater; 
and  what  appears  hard  to-day  may,  by  repeated  trials, 
become  perfectly  easy  to-morrow.  As  right  habits  can 
only  be  formed  gradually,  we  should  never  exact  too 
much  fiom  a  child.  Habits  of  attention,  reflection, 
application,  industry,  virtue,  and  piety  are  better  in- 
culcated by  example  than  by  precept;  for  children  are 
peculiarly  imitative  beings;  if  the  parents  of  a  child, 
for  instance,  are  always  employed,  the  child  cannot  long 
remain  idle, — he  will  soon  acquire  the  habit  of  industry; 
and  so  on  to  other  cases.     Well-timed  practical  exam- 


158  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

pies  or  illustrations  will  have  far  more  influence  in 
developing  the  character  of  children  than  abstract  rules 
or  precepts.  And  as  no  proposition  should  be  given 
without  a  proof,  so  no  duty  should  be  exacted  without 
a  reason. 

"Virtues  and  vices  (says  Locke)  can  by  no  words  be 
so  plainly  set  before  their  understandings  as  the  actions 
of  other  men  will  show  them,  when  you  direct  their 
observation  and  bid  them  view  this  or  that  good  or  bad 
quality  in  their  practice.  And  the  beauty  and  un- 
comeliness  of  many  things,  in  good  or  ill  breeding,  will 
be  better  learnt,  and  make  deeper  impressions  on  them, 
in  the  examples  of  others,  than  from  any  rule  or  instruc- 
tions that  can  be  given  about  them.  And  what  ill  they 
either  overlook  or  indulge  in  themselves,  they  cannot  but 
dislike  and  be  ashamed  of  when  it  is  set  before  them  in 
another. 

"And  here  give  me  leave  to  take  notice  of  one  thing 
I  think  a  fault  in  the  ordinary  method  of  education; 
and  that  is,  the  charging  of  children's  memories,  upon 
all  occasions,  with  rules  and  precepts  which  they  often 
do  not  understand,  and  are  constantly  as  soon  forgotten 
as  given.  If  it  be  some  action  you  would  have  done,  or 
done  otherwise,  whenever  they  forget  or  do  it  awk- 
wardly, make  them  do  it  over  and  over  again,  till  they 
arc  perfect:  whereby  you  will  get  these  two  advantages. 
First,  to  see  whether  it  be  an  action  they  can  do,  or  is 
fit  to  be  expected  of  them.  For  sometimes  children  are 
bid  to  do  things  which  upon  trial  they  are  found  not 
able  to  do;  and  had  need  to  be  taught  and  exercised  in 
before  they  are  required  to  do  them.  Secondly,  another 
thing  got  by  it  will  be  this,  that  by  repeating  the  same 


LOCKE    ON   METHOD.  169 

action,  till  it  be  grown  habitual  in  them,  the  perform- 
ance will  not  depend  on  memory,  or  reflection,  the  con- 
comitant of  prudence  and  age,  and  not  of  childhood: 
but  will  be  natural  in  them.  Thus,  bowing  to  a  gentle- 
man when  he  salutes  him,  and  looking  in  his  face  when 
he  speaks  to  him,  is  by  constant  use  as  natural  to  a  well- 
bred  man  as  breathing;  it  requires  no  thought,  no  reflec- 
tion. Having  this  way  cured  in  your  child  any  fault,  it 
is  cured  forever:  and  thus,  one  by  one,  you  may  weed 
them  all  out,  and  plant  what  habits  you  please. 

"  I  have  seen  parents  so  heap  rules  on  their  children 
that  it  was  impossible  for  the  poor  little  ones  to  remem- 
ber a  tenth  part  of  them,  much  less  to  observe  them. 
However,  they  vrere  by  either  words  or  blows  corrected 
for  the  breach  of  those  multiplied  and  often  very  imper- 
tinent precepts.  Whence  it  naturally  followed  that  the 
children  minded  not  what  was  said  to  them;  when  it 
was  evident  to  them  that  no  attention  they  were  capable 
of  was  sufficient  to  preserve  them  from  transgression, 
and  the  rebukes  which  followed  it. 

"  Let  therefore  your  rules  to  your  son  be  as  few  as 
possible,  and  rather  fewer  than  more  than  seem  abso- 
lutely necessary.  For  if  you  burden  him  with  many 
rules,  one  of  these  two  things  must  necessarily  follow, 
that  either  he  must  be  very  often  punished,  which  will 
be  of  ill  consequence,  by  making  punishment  loo  fre- 
quent and  familiar;  or  else  you  must  let  the  transgres- 
sions of  some  of  your  rules  go  unpunished,  whereby 
they  will  of  course  grow  contemptible,  and  your  author- 
ity become  cheap  to  him.  Make  but  few  laws,  but  see 
they  be  well  observed,  when  once  made.  Few  years 
require  but  few  laws,  and,  as  his  age  increases,  when 


160  THILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

one  rule  is  by  practice  well  established,  you  may  add 
another. 

"  But  pray  remember  children  are  not  to  be  taught  by 
rules;  which  will  be  always  slipping  out  of  their  memo- 
ries. What  you  think  necessary  for  them  to  do,  settle 
in  them  by  an  indispensable  practice,  as  often  as  the 
occasion  returns;  and  if  it  be  possible,  make  occasions. 
This  will  beget  habits  in  them,  which  being  once  estab- 
lished, operate  of  themselves,  easily  and  naturally,  with- 
out the  assistance  of  the  memory.  But  here  let  me  give 
two  cautions. 

"  1.  The  one  is,  that  you  keep  them  to  the  practice  of 
what  you  would  have  grow  into  a  habit  in  them,  by  kind 
words  and  gentle  admonitions,  rather  as  minding  them 
of  what  they  forget,  than  by  harsh  rebukes  and  chiding 
as  if  they  were  wilfully  guilty. 

"  2.  Another  thing  you  are  to  take  care  of  is  not  to 
endeavor  to  settle  too  many  habits  at  once,  lest  by  a 
variety  you  confound  them,  and  so  perfect  none.  When 
constant  custom  has  made  any  one  thing  easy  and  nat- 
ural to  them,  and  they  practise  it  witout  reflectioi),  you 
may  then  go  on  to  another. 

"  This  method  of  teaching  children  by  a  repeated 
practice  and  the  same  action  done  over  and  over  again, 
under  the  eye  and  direction  of  the  tutor,  till  they  have 
got  the  habit  of  doing  it  well,  and  not  by  relying  on 
rules  trusted  to  their  memories,  has  so  many  advantages, 
which  way  soever  we  consider  it,  that  I  cannot  but  won- 
der (if  ill  customs  could  be  wondered  at  in  anything) 
how  it  could  possibly  be  so  much  neglected.  I  shall 
name  one  more  that  comes  now  in  my  way.  By  this 
metliod  we  shall  see,  whether  what  is  required  of  him 


HABITS    OF    ATTENTION.  161 

be  adapted  to  his  capacity,  and  any  way  suited  to  the 
child's  natural  genius  and  constitution:  for  that  too 
must  be  considered  in  a  right  education." 

The  habits  of  attention  and  concentration  are  the  great  main- 
springs of  education. 

As  we  have  already  observed,  the  great  secret  in  se- 
curing the  attention  of  children  is  to  interest  them;  and 
the  habit  of  attention  is  cultivated  by  keeping  the  fac- 
ulty in  a  state  of  vigorous  activity  during  the  whole 
course  of  our  instruction.  The  habits  of  listlessness  and 
inattention  are  engendered  by  injudicious  or  inappro- 
priate plans  of  teaching.  The  habit  of  directing  the 
undivided  force  of  the  faculties  to  a  given  subject  is  the 
great  main-spring  of  self-education.  But  this  habit,  in 
its  fullest  vigor,  is  rarely  acquired  in  early  life;  notwith- 
standing, the  teacher  should  be  prepared  to  avail  him- 
self of  all  the  occasions  most  favorable  for  its  cultiva- 
tion. The  principle  of  emulation  and  a  judicious  system 
of  rewards  are  two  of  our  most  powerful  supplemental 
aids  in  the  cultivation  of  habit. 

TJie  habit  of  observation  should  be  specially  cultivated. 
Object  lessons  are  highly  calculated  to  foster  the 
habit  of  observation.  Children  should  be  accustomed  to 
examine,  analyze,  and  inspect  every  object  of  interest 
around  them:  the  flowers  and  minerals  by  the  wayside, 
the  animals  of  the  fields,  the  warblers  of  the  forest,  the 
various  household  utensils,  etc.,  all  present  us  with  ex- 
cellent subjects  for  exercising  the  observing  faculties. 
The  habit  of  observing  the  structures,  uses,  and  proper- 
ties of  familiar  things,  prepares  the  mind  for  entering 
upon  a  higher  course  af  scientific  inquiry. 


162  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 


Part  II. 

ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  INTELLECTUAL  AND 
MORAL  FACULTIES. 


CHAP.  I. 

PRELIMINARY  NOTIONS.— IMPORTANCE  OF  PSYCHOLOGICAL  ANALYSIS  IN 
RELATION  TO  TEACHING,  ETC. 

No  class  of  men  require  a  knowledge  of  intellectual  and 
moral  philosophy  more  than  teachers:  self-knowledge  is 
valuable  to  all,  but  it  is  especially  valuable  to  thera. 
Self-knowledge,  in  its  fullest  acceptation,  requires  that 
we  should  know  ourselves  in  relation  to  the  three  states 
of  our  existence, — the  past,  the  present,  and  the  future: 
consciousness  tells  us  what  we  are^  remembrance  informs 
us  what  we  have  been,  and  reason,  by  combining  the  facts 
of  our  past  and  present  existence,  enables  us  to  antici- 
pate what  we  shall  he.  But  self-knowledge,  in  this  com- 
prehensive sense,  is  rarely  found  amongst  teachers:  we 
seem  to  regard  our  minds  as  little  as  we  do  our  watches, 
— we  look  at  the  dial  plate,  but  heed  not  the  internal 
machinery — the  springs,  the  regulators,  or  the  beautiful 
combinations  of  wheels  within  wheels  by  which  the  re- 
sults are  produced.  A  man  who  is  entrusted  with  the 
direction  of  a  machine  should  surely  be  acquainted  with 
the  principles  of  its  construction.     Now  the  teaclier  has 


CULTIVATION    OF   THE    FACULTIES.  163 

to  regulate  and  develop  the  faculties  of  a  human  soul, — 
his  mind  has  to  act  upon  another  mind  so  as  to  give  a 
right  tone  and  direction  to  its  development.  Here  mind 
is  the  agent  which  acts,  and  mind  is  the  object  acted 
upon.  The  teacher  should,  therefore,  study  the  philoso- 
phy of  our  intellectual  and  moral  nature. 

The  most  wonderful  work  of  God  is  the  human  soul, 
for  it  has  been  created  after  His  own  image;  and  the 
laws  which  govern  its  action  and  development  demand 
the  most  patient  study.  The  highest  of  all  intellectual 
efforts  is  that  of  the  mind  engaged  in  the  study  of  itself, 
— the  principle  of  thought  engaged  in  the  investigation 
of  the  laws  and  processes  of  thought, — the  intellectual 
vision  turned  inwardly  upon  itself.  Here  we  must  arrest 
the  current  of  thought,  in  order  to  determine  the  modes 
and  conditions  of  its  action  and  development. 

The  child  is  the  man  in  embryo:  the  child  has  the 
same  faculties  as  the  man,  but  they  are  in  a  different 
state  of  development.  In  order  that  a  man  may  teach 
children,  he  should  thoroughly  sympathize  with  them, — 
he  should  realize  their  habits  of  thought  and  action, 
peculiar  tastes  and  modes  of  self -development;  he  should 
frequently,  in  imagination,  conceive  himself  to  be  a 
little  child,  and  recall  to  himself  all  that  he  thought  and 
felt  when  he  was  a  little  child;  so  that  he  may  be  able 
to  tell  what  effect  any  particular  form  of  instruction  or 
mode  of  training  will  have  upon  them.  A  teacher, 
therefore,  should  not  only  know  himself  as  he  is,  but  he 
should  also  look  back  to  the  early  history  of  his  own 
mind,  and  analyze  the  facts  of  this  past  experience  with 
the  view  of  determining  the  causes  which  had  been  most 
operative  in  stimulating  the  growth  and  development  of 
his  faculties. 


164  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

Let  us  for  a  moment  glance  at  the  panorama  of  our 
early  years,  with  tlie  view  of  realizing  our  thoughts  and 
feelings  relative  to  the  educational  influences  which 
were  brought  to  bear  upon  our  own  intellectual  and 
moral  development.  This  psychological  inquiry  will 
bring  home  to  us  the  momentous  fact  that  there  is  not  a 
single  act,  not  a  single  thought,  of  our  past  life,  that  has 
not  had  its  influence  in  fixing  our  present  intellectual 
and  moral  condition.  What  we  are  is  but  the  last  link 
in  a  long  chain  of  sequences,  extending  from  childhood 
to  youth,  from  youth  to  manhood,  from  manhood  to 
age;  and  what  we  shall  be  will  only  be  an  extension 
of  the  links  of  this  chain  of  sequences. 

A  glance  at  our  childhood  and  early  youth. 

Let  us  in  imagination  live  our  lives  over  again,  with 
the  view  of  realizing  the  different  stages  of  our  intel- 
lectual and  moral  development,  and  of  exposing  the 
errors  of  certain  systems  of  education.  This  will  not  be 
difficult  if  we  confine  ourselves  to  a  simple  statement  of 
facts,  without  refining  too  much  upon  the  use  of  phrases, 
or  mixing  up  our  apprehensions  with  recondite  theories 
relative  to  mental  phenomena. 

We  all  remember  how,  in  our  early  childhood,  we 
loved  whatever  afforded  us  pleasure,  and  hated  whatever 
gave  us  pain, — how  we  loved  the  beautiful  and  the  good, 
and  dreaded  what  was  ugly  and  bad, — what  horror  a 
butcher  or  a  butcher's  shop  excited,  and  how  visions  of 
blood  and  cruelty  haunted  us  in  our  dreams, — what 
pleasure  we  derived  from  every  strange  scene  and  every 
new  toy, — how  we  dreaded  our  hard  task-masters,  and 
how  delighted  we  were  when  we  were  permitted  to 
acquire  knowledge  in  our  own  way. 


CHILDHOOD   AND    TOUTH.  165 

We  all  remember  how  in  our  boyish  days  we  made 
whistles  and  pop-guns,  suckers  and  slings, — how  in  our 
games  we  mimicked  the  ways  and  doings  of  man  in  the 
great  world, — how  we  loved  to  wander  in  the  fields 
and  pluck  the  flowers  and  listen  to  nature's  wild  music, 
— how  we  distinguished  birds  one  from  another,  or 
different  animals  one  from  another, — how  we  loved  to 
gaze  upon  the  sea  and  the  sky,  or  to  penetrate  the 
depths  of  the  trackless  forest,  or  to  climb  the  rugged 
cliff, — how  the  contemplation  of  nature  filled  our  little 
souls  with  ecstacy,  and  how  we  wondered  if  other 
people  felt  the  same  emotions  that  the  words  God, 
Eternity,  Immensity,  &c.,  excited  in  our  minds, — how 
imagination  conjured  up  fictitious  scenes,  and  peopled 
them  with  the  creations  of  our  own  brain, — how  we 
hated  the  drudgery  of  tasks,  because  we  could  not 
understand  them,  and  with  what  pleasure  we  turned 
from  them  to  read  stories  of  animals  or  tales  about 
children,~how  readily  we  believed  in  everything  that 
was  told  us,  and  how  our  religion  intermingled  itself 
with  superstitious  notions, — how  we  told  ghost  stories, 
in  the  long  winter  nights,  to  our  playfellows,  sitting 
round  the  fire, — how  we  wished  that  our  school  days 
were  over,  that  we  might  think  and  read  as  our  own 
instincts  directed  us,  without  being  under  the  iron  rule 
of  hard  masters, — with  what  pleasure  we  anticipated 
the  approach  of  holidays  and  periods  of  festivities,  and 
how  we  looked  to  the  future,  when  we  should  be  with- 
out pain  or  anxiety,  and  when  we  should  enjoy  the  full 
exercise  of  our  faculties. 

We  all  remember  when  our  school  days  were  over, 
and  when  we  fairly   commenced  the  process   of   self- 


166  PHILOSOPHY   OF   EDUCATION. 

development — with  what  avidity  we  read  books  tiiat 
suited  our  capacities  and  tastes,  and  what  pleasure  the 
exercise  of  our  intellectual  faculties  afforded  us, — how 
the  dogmas  of  our  school  learning  were  forgotten  or 
disregarded, — how  we  studied  men  and  things  for  our- 
selves, and  how  our  own  faculties  and  feelings  became 
distinct  objects  of  contemplation, — how  our  past  joys 
and  sorrows,  thoughts  and  emotions,  passed  in  review 
before  us,  and  liow  hope  and  high  resolve  shed  a  halo 
over  the  future,  and  urged  us  on  in  the  career  of  life. 

And  now,  when  the  fairy  existence  of  early  youth  is 
past,  what  remains  for  our  matured  age  ?  The  illusions 
of  hope  have  melted  away  like  the  unsubstantial  visions 
of  the  night, — life  has  lost  its  greatest  charm,  and  the 
stern  realities  of  existence  meet  us  on  every  side, — most 
of  the  gay  friends  of  our  childhood  are  in  the  cold 
grave,  and  the  voices  that  once  charmed  us,  as  with  the 
sweetest  melody,  are  silent  and  still.  What  remains  for 
us?  Action!  usefulness!  and  the  prospect  of  meeting 
our  lost  friends  in  a  better  state  of  existence  ! 

This  review  of  the  facts  of  our  past  existence  supplies 
us  with  valuable  suggestions  relative  to  the  work  of 
elementary  education. 

A  cursoi'y  view  of  our  intellectual  and  moral  faculties  as  regards 
their  mode  of  development, 

Man  is  a  thinking  and  responsible  being;  hence  we 
speak  of  our  intellectual  and  moral  nature, — of  the 
powers  of  intellect,  which  have  respect  to  knowledge, 
and  of  the  moral  powers,  which  have  respect  to  conduct. 
We  think,  feel,  and  act;  we  have  thoughts  and  emo- 
tions, and  we  have  also  the  power  of  controlling  our 


INTELLECTUAL    AND    MORAL   FACULTIES.  167 

thoughts  and  emotions.  Hence  our  mental  phenomena 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  1.  Simple  intellect, 
comprehending  those  faculties  by  which  we  perceive, 
remember,  compare,  conceive,  imagine,  and  reason.  2. 
Emotions,  usually  called  passions  or  affections;  these 
maybe  eithei*  passive  or  active;  passive  emotions  simply 
affect  us  with  pleasure  or  pain;  active  emotions  affect 
our  conduct,  and  they  may  be  either  right  or  wrong, 
virtuous  or  vicious.  3.  Over  all  these  powers  and  emo- 
tions is  i^laced  the  principle  of  self-control, — the  volun- 
tary principle — the  will,  which  constitutes  man  a 
voluntary  being,  and  which,  acting  in  conjunction  with 
REASON  and  the  power  of  conscience — that  inherent 
instinctive  sense  of  right  and  wrong — also  constitutes 
him  a  moral  and  responsible  agent. 

Let  us  now  endeavor  to  trace  the  successive  stages  of 
our  intellectual  and  moral  development. 

External  objects  produce  impressions  upon  our  senses, 
which  impressions  we  call  sensations;  we  become  conscious 
of  these  sensations,  and  we  perceive  the  objects  which 
produce  them;  hence  we  regard  sensation  and  perception 
as  belonging  to  the  first  stage  of  our  mental  development. 
Sensation  is  the  effect  which  external  objects  have  upon 
our  senses;  perception  is  an  act  of  the  mind,  and  hence 
we  speak  of  the  faculty  of  perception.*     But  a  sen- 

*  Brown  and  his  followers  object  to  the  use  of  the  word  faculty  or  power 
as  applied  to  these  distinct  acts  of  the  mind;  they  consider  that  the  use 
of  such  phraseology  ascribes  distinct  functions  to  the  mind,  somewhat 
after  the  manner  in  which  we  ascribe  distinct  senses  to  the  body.  Now 
we  take  the  broad  facts  of  mental  phenomena,  as  they  are  received  and 
understood  by  all;  and  by  the  word  faculty,  as  here  used,  we  simply  mean 
a  certain  distinct  mental  act,  or,  it  may  be,  a  certain  distinct  state  of  the 
mind.  Some  very  substantial  reasons  must  be  given  in  order  to  cliange 
the  phraseology  of  a  people. 


168  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

sation  may  take  place  without  being  followed  by  its 
corresponding  perception;  thus,  for  example,  an  object 
may  be  placed  before  our  organs  of  vision  without  being 
perceived  by  us;  in  fact  we  must  give  our  attention  to  a 
thing  before  we  can  have  a  full  perception  of  it;  hence 
we  recognize  the  existence  of  that  voluntary  power  of 
the -mind  which  we  call  the  faculty  of  attention.  We 
remember  past  impressions  and  perceptions;  hence  we 
are  said  to  possess  the  faculty  of  memory.  We  recall 
at  our  will  past  impressions  and  scenes,  and  conceive 
them  to  be,  as  it  were,  placed  before  us  with  all  the 
vividness  of  the  original  impressions;  hence  we  are  said 
to  possess  the  faculty  of  conception.  By  this  faculty 
we  make  the  idea — the  conception — of  an  object  a  dis- 
tinct subject  of  consciousness  and  contemplation.  We 
not  only  remember  and  conceive,  but  we  also  compare 
the  impressions  of  objects,  whether  present  or  absent, 
with  each  other,  and  thus  distinguish  them  one  from 
another,  or  form  a  judgment  relative  to  their  respective 
qualities;  hence  we  are  said  to  possess  the  faculties  of 
comparison  and  of  primitive  judgment;  these  form  the 
first  elements  of  the  process  of  reasoning.  Things  are 
perceived  by  us  under  certain  relations  of  place,  time, 
&c  ;  we  recollect  them  in  the  same  order  of  place,  time, 
&c.;  hence  we  are  said  to  possess  the  faculty  of  recol- 
lection; which  is  something  more  than  simple  memory, 
for  it  involves  the  faculty  of  association.  By  the  fac- 
ulty of  association  certain  written  signs  or  sounds 
become  suggestive  of,  or  associated  with,  certain  ideas. 
The  name  of  a  horse,  for  example,  whether  written  or 
spoken,  becomes  associated  with  the  conception  or  idea 
of  a  horse,  so  that  the  presence  of  the  one  suggests  that 


STAGES    OF    DEVELOPMENT.  169 

of  the  other.  The  gift  of  language,  or  as  we  might  say, 
the  FACULTY  OF  LANGUAGE,  not  less  than  reason  or  the 
moral  sense,  distinguishes  man  from  the  lower  animals. 
By  means  of  language,  that  wonderful  symbol  of 
thought,  we  hold  communion  with  one  another, — we 
record  the  results  of  our  experience — our  ideas, — and 
thus  the  life  of  a  man,  in  a  certain  sense,  is  not  bounded 
by  his  own  individual  term  of  existence,  but  embraces 
the  whole  period  of  the  past  existence  of  his  species. 
We  imitate  the  sounds  which  we  hear,  and  copy  the 
forms  which  we  see;  hence  we  are  said  to  possess  the 
faculty  of  IMITATION.  We  not  only  believe  in  the  facts 
which  we  derive  from  perception  and  observation,  but 
we  also  readily  accept  the  facts  communicated  to  us  by 
others;  hence  we  are  said  to  have  an  instinctive  belief 
in  testimony;  hence  that  remarkable  aptitude  which 
children  show  for  receiving  instruction,  and  the  unrea- 
soning trust  which  they  repose  in  the  statements  of  their 
parents  and  teachers.  This  may  be  not  inappropriately 
called  the  faculty  op  learning. 

Let  us  now  trace  some  of  the  earliest  developments  of 
imagination,  abstraction,  and  reason. 

We  imagine  things  to  exist,  and  invest  them  with  vari- 
ous imaginary  qualities.  With  the  aid  of  visible  repre- 
sentations, we  form  an  idea  of  absent  objects  and  things, 
— a  small  picture  enables  us  to  realize  the  idea  of  a 
mountain  stream,  or  of  some  beautiful  natural  scene; 
hence  we  are  said  to  possess  the  faculty  of  Ideality, 
which  is  obviously  nearly  allied  to  that  of  imagination. 

We  OBSERVE  the  relation  between  events: — a  stroke 
upon  the  table,  for  example,  is  followed  by  a  sound;  the 
stroke  is  recognized  as  the  cause,  and  the  sound  as  the 


170  l*HiLOSOPBy  OP  educaTtok. 

effect;  Uie  stroke  is  repeated,  and  the  same  sound  is 
produced,  and  we  instinctively  believe  that  the  same 
effect  will  always  follow  the  operation  of  the  same 
cause. 

We  see  a  series  of  objects  having  the  same  color; — 
they  may  be  different  in  form,  taste,  &c.,  but  they  have 
the  same  color: — we  form  a  conception  of  that  color, 
apart  from  the  other  properties  of  the  bodies, — that  is 
to  say,  we  form  an  abstract  idea  of  it. 

We  see  a  lot  of  balls, — they  may  be  different  in  color; 
some  may  be  rough,  others  may  be  smooth,  but  they 
have  all  the  same  form — they  are  all  balls;  we  realize  a 
conception  of  this  form  apart  from  the  other  properties 
of  the  bodies.  A  particular  figure  formed  by  three 
straight  lines,  and  therefore  containing  three  angles,  is 
called  a  triangle;  but  we  may  draw  another  figure 
bounded  by  three  straight  lines,  which  shall  differ  very 
much  from  the  first  in  the  absolute  and  the  relative 
lengths  of  the  sides;  yet  still  we  call  this  figure  a  tri- 
angle, for  it  is  bounded  by  three  sides  and  contains 
three  angles:  hence  we  form  the  abstract  idea  of  a  tri- 
angle, corresponding  to  the  definition  which  limits  or 
defines  this  species  of  form.  And  so  on  to  other  cases 
of  geometrical  form  and  magnitude.  In  like  manner  we 
arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  the  various  properties  of 
bodies. 

We  see  a  lot  of  balls, — we  count  them  by  ones — they 
make  up  a  certain  number;  but  they  may  be  grouped  in 
different  ways,  and  the  total  number  will  be  made  up  of 
the  number  in  the  different  groups  put  togethei-;  thus, 
for  example,  if  there  are  five  balls,  we  may  put  them 
into  two  groups,  one  of  which  shall  contain  three  balls 


ABSTRACTION   AND    GENERALIZATION.  I7l 

and  the  other  two;  then  we  arrive  at  the  fact  that  three 
balls  and  two  balls  make  five  balls;  but  we  may  count, 
in  the  same  manner,  with  buttons,  or  with  any  other  ob- 
jects; hence  we  form  the  abstract  conception  of  num- 
bers and  properties  of  numbers,  without  regard  to  the 
particular  objects  which  represent  them,  whether  they 
be  balls,  or  buttons,  or  cubes,  or  anything  else.  The 
results,  thus  obtained,  expressed  in  language  become 
established  truths  or  propositions,  and  we  remember 
them  as  such. 

In  all  these  cases  we  exercise  the  faculty  of  abstrac- 
tion, which  at  the  same  time  involves  those  of  classifi- 
cation and  generalization.  By  the  faculty  of  abstrac- 
tion, therefore,  we  arrange  objects  into  classes,  genera, 
and  species.  Thus  we  observe  that  some  objects  have 
certain  common  properties,  by  which  we  distinguish 
them  from  other  objects;  hence  we  classify  them  and 
call  them  by  some  name  indicative  of  the  class:  thus  we 
soon  distinguish  between  a  horse  and  a  cow,  &c.:  hence 
also  we  generalize,  that  is  to  say,  we  take  a  comprehen- 
sive view  of  a  multifarious  collection  of  facts  by  select- 
ing one  which  is  common  to  them  all. 

Co-existent  with  this  stage  of  intellectual  develop- 
ment, certain  appetites  and  passions  exhibit  themselves. 
The  taste  of  a  sweetmeat  affords  us  pleasure,  the  taste 
of  a  drug  is  unpleasant;  we  love  and  desire  the  one, 
while  we  dislike  and  avoid  the  other.  Some  sensations 
and  ideas  are  accompanied  with  pain,  others  with  pleas- 
ure; we  love  the  person  that  is  kind  to  us,  because  his 
kindness  affords  us  pleasure,  and  we  hate  and  fear  the 
person  that  treats  us  with  cruelty,  because  his  cruelty 
gives  us  pain. 


172  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

The  sentiment  of  taste — the  sense  of  the  sublime  and 
beautiful— early  develops  itself.  We  admire  a  beauti- 
ful object,  because  the  sight  of  it  affords  us  pleasure, — 
the  flowers  with  their  varied  forms,  and  colors  and 
scents, — the  green  fields  and  woods, — the  bright  sun, 
lighting  up  the  wide  earth  with  life  and  joy, — the 
silver  moon,  as  she  sheds  her  soft  and  balmy  light  over 
the  slumbering  world, — the  stars,  as  they  twinkle  in 
the  depths  of  the  azure  canopy  of  night,—  all  are  beau- 
tiful to  us — all  are  charming  to  us — because  they  all 
awaken  within  us  the  sentiments  of  love  and  admiration. 

But  the  contemplation  of  the  sublime,  not  less  than 
the  beautiful,  affords  us  pleasure:  the  snow-clad  moun- 
tain,— the  deep  ravine, — the  boundless  expanse  of  field 
and  forest, — the  vast  ocean  as  it  swells  and  foams  and 
responds  to  the  moaning  winds, — the  rolling  thunder 
and  the  flashing  lightning, — all  are  sublime — all  fill  our 
souls  with  the  sentiments  of  awe,  veneration,  and 
WONDER,  and  impress  us  with  the  ideas  of  vastness, 
power,  immensity,  and  infinitude.  Above  all,  and  over 
all,  we  adore  and  love  the  great  God,  who  made  the 
world  and  all  its  fulness,  and  enthroned  Himself  amid 
its  riches  and  goodness. 

We  love  knowledge  in  all  its  forms,  because  its 
acquisition  affords  us  pleasure.  Not  satisfied  with  what 
we  already  know,  we  seek  to  know  more;  hence  that 
insatiable  appetite  for  knowledge — that  ceaseless  curi- 
osity, which  is  ever  craving  for  knowledge,  but  is  never 
satisfied,  and  which  forms  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
features  of  the  infant  mind.  We  love  approbation,  and 
the  consciousness  of  mental  power  affords  us  pleasure. 
We  eagerly  strive  with  our  companions  in  the  race  of 


THE    MOEAL   SENSE.  173 

improvement;  hence  we  are  said  to  possess  the  principle 

of    EMULATION. 

We  also  soon  distinguish  between  what  is  good  or 
bad  in  conduct:  the  sense  of  the  beautiful  is  closely 
related  to,  and  connected  with,  the  moral  sense,  or  that 
faculty  whereby  we  distinguish  what  is  good  and  beau- 
tiful, and  therefore  praiseworthy,  in  our  actions,  from 
what  is  bad  and  displeasing,  and  therefore  blameworthy. 
The  inherent  conviction  of  our  moral  responsibility 
leads  us  to  follow  the  one  and  avoid  the  other.  We 
see  that  self-indulgence,  if  carried  too  far,  is  injurious 
to  ourselves,  and  often  detrimental  to  the  happiness 
of  others;  we  hence  recognize  two  distinct  principles, 
or  rather  two  distinct  classes  of  emotions  in  our  nature, 
— the  one  class  has  been  called  the  selfish  emotions, 
the  other  the  benevolent  emotions;  the  one  seeks  the 
gratification  of  self,  the  other  seeks  to  promote  the  hap- 
piness of  others.  The  principle  of  sympathy  leads  us 
to  adopt  the  golden  rule  of  conduct,  viz.,  to  do  unto 
others  as  we  would  that  they  should  do  unto  us.  We 
pity  those  that  are  in  pain  or  distress, — we  sympathize 
with  them,  that  is,  we  in  a  certain  sense  make  their 
misery  our  own,  and  thus  we  are  led  to  relieve  them. 
But  our  instincts  are  not  all  for  good:  we  suffer  inju- 
ries or  injustice  from  others;  those  injuries  excite  within 
us  the  emotions  of  hatred  and  revenge,  and  other 
malevolent  passions;  but  we  cannot  indulge  these 
passions  without  causing  misery  to  ourselves  as  well  as 
to  others;  hence  arises  the  necessity  of  self-control. 
We  tell  LIES — falsehoods — to  screen  ourselves  from 
the  consequences  of  our  follies,  or  it  may  be  to  gratify 
our  vanity;  but  our  conscience  raises  its  voice  against 


174  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

the  violation  of  truth.  We  take  the  pro]ierty  of 
others,  or  seek  to  indulge  ourselves  at  the  expense  of 
others;  but  the  golden  rule  tells  us  that  theft,  injustice, 
&c.,  are  wrong,  and  that  honesty,  justice,  &c.,  are  right. 
The  love  of  approbation  frequently  engenders  vanity, 
and  the  consciousness  of  power  produces  pride  and 
CONCEIT.  Education  stimula'tes  the  development  of  our 
virtuous  emotions,  and  checks  the  development  of  those 
that  are  evil.  Scripture,  the  revealed  word  of  God, 
lends  its  all-powerful  aid  to  inculcate  what  is  good,  and 
to  denounce  what  is  evil.  We  are  there  informed  that 
God  is  holy  as  well  as  good,  just  as  well  as  merciful;  as 
judge  of  all  the  earth,  therefore,  He  will  punish  the 
wicked  and  reward  the  righteous  in  the  world  to  come. 

Of  all  our  intellectual  faculties,  imagination,  reason, 
judgment  and  invention  are  the  latest  in  attaining  their 
full  growth  and  development. 

Out  of  our  impressions  of  actual  scenes  and  events, 
we  imagine  or,  as  it  were,  create  fictitious  scenes  and 
events,  and  invest  them  with  all  the  vividness  and 
warmth  of  reality;  hence  we  are  said  to  possess  the  fac- 
ulty of  IMAGINATION.  We  Separate  facts  or  general 
principles  from  each  other,  and  throw  them  into  new 
combinations  with  the  view  of  deriving  some  new  result 
or  fact;  in  this  case  we  are  said  to  exercise  the  faculty 
of  INVENTION,  which  is  obviously  very  nearly  allied  to 
that  of  imagination. 

We  analyze  facts,  compare  them  with  each  other^ 
observe  their  relations,  and  deduce  from  these  relations 
certain  general  facts  or  principles;  we  compare  our 
mental  impressions  with  external  things,  draw  conclu- 
sions, and  establish  certain  principles  of  belief;    in   all 


CtJLTlVATlON    OF   DIFFEEENT   FACULTIES.  iVS 

these  cases,  we  are  said  to  exercise  the  faculty  of  rea- 
son, or  it  may  be  that  of  judgment.  By  reason  we 
investigate  truths,  and  determine  the  laws  of  evidence 
and  belief.  Reason  is  the  highest  faculty  of  our  nature, 
and  admits  of  an  indefinite  degree  of  cultivation. 

A  more  exact  analysis  of  the  mind,  with  a  classifica- 
tion of  its  faculties,  is  given  in  Chap.  III.,  Part  I.,  of 
this  work  (see  page  11). 


CHAP.  II. 

CULTIVATION  OF  THE  INTELLECTUAL  FACULTIES.— CULTIVATION  OF  THE  PER- 
CEPTIVE FACULTIES  AND  OF  THE  FACULTIES  OF  PRIMITIVE  JUDGMENT, 
CONCEPTION,  IMITATION,  ABSTRACTION,  AND  LANGUAGE. 

Our  first  knowledge  of  the  existence  and  properties  of 
the  material  world  is  derived  through  our  senses;  hence 
it  follows  that  our  knowledge  of  the  properties  of  mate- 
rial bodies  is  limited  by  the  number  and  acuteness  of 
our  senses.  It  is  generally  believed  that  we  have  five 
senses, — sight,  hearing,  taste,  smell,  and  touch;  but  to 
these  has  been  added  the  sense  of  muscular  effort,  or  the 
sense  of  resistance  to  muscular  action. 

Some  properties  are  cognizable  by  one  sense  only; 
but  in  general  our  knowledge  of  the  external  world  is 
derived  from  the  combined  action  of  several  senses. 
Thus  color  can  only  be  known  to  us  by  the  sense  of 
sight,  sound  by  the  sense  of  hearing,  taste  by  the  sense 
of  taste,  cold  or  heat  by  the  sense  of  feeling,  odor  by 
the  sense  of  smell,  and  weight  or  force  by  the  sense  of 
muscular  effort;  but  the  properties  of  form,  size,  num- 


176  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

ber  and  texture  are  cognizable  by  at  least  two  of  our 
senses,  viz.,  sight  and  touch;  the  ideas  of  number  and 
succession  may  be  conveyed  to  the  mind  by  any  of  our 
senses;  thus  a  succession  of  sounds,  tastes,  &c.,  may 
impress  us  with  the  idea  of  number  as  perfectly  as  a 
series  of  objects  placed  before  the  eye  can  do.  Our 
impression  of  solidity,  roughness  or  smoothness,  is  de- 
rived from  touch  combined  with  muscular  action.  And 
so  on  to  other  cases. 

The  first  notions  derived  from  our  senses,  however, 
seem  to  be  limited  and  imperfect.  Our  real  knowledge 
is  only  acquired  by  experience,  in  the  course  of  which 
the  impressions  derived  from  one  sense  are  used  to  sup- 
ply the  deficiencies  and  correct  the  errors  of  the  impres- 
sions derived  from  another  sense,  and  by  the  mind  acting 
upon  the  impressions  derived  from  all  the  senses.  Thus, 
for  example,  the  primary  objects  of  vision  are  color  and 
apparent  form;  but  the  result  of  experience,  derived 
from  the  sense  of  touch,  &c.,  enables  us  to  judge  of 
distance  and  magnitude  by  our  vision.  It  is  well  known 
that  we  have  no  idea  of  the  distance  of  an  object  unless 
we  have  some  knowledge  of  its  magnitude,  and  vice  versa. 
In  like  manner,  we  have  no  idea  of  the  intensity  of 
sounds  unless  we  have  some  knowledge  of  their  distance, 
and  vice  versa.  Experience  also  enables  us  to  judge  of 
the  distance  of  an  object  by  the  degree  of  its  brightness, 
or  by  tlie  degree  of  distinctness  of  its  outline:  hence  it 
is  that  in  a  picture  distant  objects  are  drawn  faintly  and 
with  an  indistinctness  in  the  outline  of  their  minute 
parts.  The  apparent  form  of  a  body  is  (^ften  very  differ- 
ent from  the  true  idea  which  we  conceive  of  it;  in  fact, 
our  conception  of  an   object  derived   from  vision  is  as 


CULTIVA.T10N  Ol'  THE  PEECEPTIVE  EACTTLTIES,  iVY 

much  a  matter  of  judgment  as  of  sensation.  We  avail 
ourselves  of  this  principle  in  perspective  drawing,  where 
we  diminish  the  size  of  the  lines  representing  known 
objects  to  convey  the  idea  of  distance,  and  fore-shorten 
the  lines  which  represent  the  parts  of  objects  seen 
obliquely.  These  observations  show  that  we  have  to 
learn  the  right  use  of  our  senses.  It  is  the  business  of 
the  teacher  to  aid  nature  in  accomplishing  this  end. 

On  the  cultivation  of  the  senses,  Miss  Edgeworth 
observes: — 

"Rousseau  has  judiciously  advised  that  the  senses  of 
children  should  be  cultivated,  with  the  utmost  care.  In 
proportion  to  the  distinctness  of  their  perceptions  will 
be  the  accuracy  of  their  memory,  and  probably,  also  the 
precision  of  their  judgment.  A  child  who  sees  imper- 
fectly cannot  reason  justly  about  the  objects  of  sight, 
because  he  has  not  sufficient  data.  A  child  who  does 
not  hear  distinctly  cannot  judge  well  of  sounds;  and,  if 
we  could  suppose  the  sense  of  touch  to  be  twice  as 
accurate  in  one  child  as  in  another,  we  might  conclude 
that  the  judgment  of  these  children  must  differ  in  a 
similar  proportion.  The  defects  in  organization  are  not 
within  the  power  of  the  preceptor;  but  we  may  observe 
that  inattention  and  want  of  exercise  are  frequently 
the  cause  of  what  are  mistaken  for  natural  defects; 
and,  on  the  contrary,  increased  attention  and  cultivation 
sometimes  produce  that  quickntss  of  eye  and  ear,  and 
that  consequent  readiness  of  judgment,  which  we  are 
apt  to  attribute  to  natural  superiority  of  organization  or 
capacity." 

The  cultivation  of  the  senses  necessarily  includes  the 
cultivation  of  the  faculty  of  perception.     This  faculty 


178  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

demands  the  earliest  attention  and  cultivation  ;  its  first 
development  is  best  attained  by  directing  it  to  the 
examination  of  form  and  number,  and  afterwards  to 
the  various  other  properties  of  bodies.  A  sufficient 
time  should  be  allowed  the  child  to  examine  and  observe 
the  different  parts  and  pecularities  of  the  object  at 
which  he  looks;  and  we  should  not  expect  him  to  give 
his  attention  to  more  than  one  subject  at  a  time.  He 
should  be  led  to  compare  one  object  with  another,  or  it 
may  be  different  parts  of  the  same  object  with  each 
other.  He  should  be  shown  how  to  direct  all  his  senses 
to  an  object  with  the  view  of  determining  all  its  prop- 
erties. He  will,  in  the  course  of  this  examination,  fre- 
quently find  that  he  is  able  to  detect  the  same  property 
by  different  senses.  Thus,  for  example,  the  teacher 
may  say  to  his  pupil — What  shape  has  this  object  (a 
ball)?  F.  It  is  round.  T.  How  do  you  know  that  it  is 
round  ?  P.  I  see  that  it  is  round.  T.  Is  there  no  other 
way  by  which  you  can  know  that  it  is  round?  You 
seem  to  hesitate, — now  take  it  in  your  hand  and  run 
your  fingers  over  its  surface.  P.  I  feel  that  it  is  round. 
T.  But  your  feeling  tells  of  another  property  which  that 
object  has, — what  is  that  proj)erty  ?  P.  It  feels  smooth. 
T.  But  there  is  another  way  by  which  you  know  that  it 
is  smooth  ?  P.  It  looks  smooth, — it  is  glossy  or  bright. 
T.  True — your  experience  teaches  you  that  bodies  which 
appear  bright  or  glossy  are  almost  always  smooth.  Now 
close  your  eyes,  and  take  this  body  in  your  hands, — can 
you  feel  what  color  it  has  ?  P.  I  cannot  feel  color. 
T.  Now  open  your  eyes,  and  tell  me  what  color  it  has. 
P.  I  see  that  it  is  red. 

In  cultivating  the  peri'i'plive    faculties,  the   teacher 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  PEECEPTIVE  FACULTIES.  179 

should  frequently  require  his  pupils  to  judge  of  the 
distance  of  an  object  from  its  apparent  size,  or  from  its 
distinctness  of  outline,  and  vice  versa,  or  of  the  distance 
of  a  sound  from  its  intensity,  or  of  the  distance  of  a 
place  by  the  time  which  it  takes  them  to  walk  to  it.  The 
eye  should  be  exercised  in  noting  the  position  of  objects 
with  respect  to  each  other,  and  in  comparing  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  angles  formed  by  lines  and  planes.  They 
should  be  accustomed  to  use  the  foot  rule  in  measuring 
the  lengths  and  breadths  of  different  things,  and  also 
their  distances  from  one  another,  so  that  they  may  at 
once  be  able  to  verify  their  judgments  relative  to  the 
sizes  of  different  objects.  The  weights  and  capacities 
of  bodies  should  also  be  made  a  subject  of  observation. 
In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  density,  or  the  lightness  or 
heaviness  of  a  substance,  the  attention  of  the  child 
should  be  directed  to  the  size  of  a  pound  of  tea  as 
compared  with  the  size  of  a  pound  of  sugar,  or  to  the 
weight  of  a  sovereign  as  compared  with  the  weight  of  a 
shilling. 

In  all  these  exercises,  the  child  should  be  required  to 
express  in  language  the  results  of  his  observations  or 
judgments;  and,  whenever  it  is  practicable,  he  should 
be  required  to  draw  the  object  or  objects  to  which  his 
attention  has  been  directed;  nothing  tends  to  cultivate 
the  eye  and  the  hand  so  much  as  drawing.  Proceeding 
in  this  way,  the  teacher  will  combine  perception,  ob- 
servation, JUDGMENT,  drawing,  AND  LANGUAGE  IN  THE 
SAME  EXERCISE. 

The  habit  of  exact  perception  and  observation  will  be 
further  cultivated  by  directing  the  attention  of  the 
child  to  various  natural  phenomena,  such  as  we  have 


180  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

described  under  our  general  axioms.  It  is  almost  un- 
necessary to  say  that  music  will  exercise  the  same  influ- 
ence in  the  cultivation  of  the  ear  that  drawing  does  in 
reference  to  the  eye. 

The  conceptive  faculties  should  be  cultivated  at 
the  same  time  as  the  perceptive  faculties.  After  the 
attention  of  a  cluld  has  been  sufficiently  directed  to  an 
object,  it  should  be  lemoved  from  his  sight,  and  then  he 
should  be  required  to  describe  it  in  language,  or,  it  may 
be,  by  drawing  a  representation  of  it.  In  like  manner, 
after  certain  operations  of  numbers  have  been  explained 
to  him,  by  reference  to  familiar  objects,  such  as  balls  or 
strokes,  he  should  be  required  to  perform  by  the  ordi- 
nary process  of  mental  calculation,  similar  operations 
without  the  aid  of  such  objects.  He  should  also  be  re- 
quired to  describe,  in  his  own  language,  particular 
scenes  and  events  which  he  may  have  recently  wit- 
nessed. 

A  teacher  should  address  his  instruction  to  the  eye  as 
well  as  to  the  ear.  The  subject  should  be  illustrated 
by  pictures,  drawings,  or  figures,  as  the  case  may  re- 
quire, and  new  phrases  or  words  should  be  written  in 
large  characters  upon  the  blackboard.  In  all  cases,  the 
conception  of  any  new  thing  should  be  aided  by  words, 
by  symbols,  by  figurative  representations,  or  by  models. 

After  all  the  properties  of  a  body  have  been  examined 
by  the  pupils,  the  names  given  to  these  properties  should 
be  thoroughly  impressed  upon  their  minds.  These  prop- 
erties, as  we  have  before  remarked,  should  then  be  made 
a  subject  of  comparison  or  contrast,  as  the  case  maybe, 
with  the  corresponding  properties  of  other  bodies;  and 
then  the  property  or  properties  by  which  the  object  on 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  CONCEPTIVE  FACULTIES.  181 

which  the  lesson  is  given  is  distinguished  from  other 
bodies  should  be  distinctly  pointed  out,  and  the  judgments 
thus  foraied  should  be  expressed  in  simple  and  appro- 
priate language.  The  uses  to  which  the  body  is  applied 
should  then  be  exhibited;  and  the  connection  between 
its  distinguishing  properties  and  its  uses  should  be  care- 
fully explained  and  illustrated. 

Children  like  to  dwell  in  the  ideal  world, — the  world 
of  conceptions.  The  depth  and  vividness  of  their  con- 
ceptions are  intensified  by  the  emotions  elicited  by  our 
lessons.  The  following  subjects  of  instruction  are  highly 
calculated  to  interest  the  feelings,  and  to  invigorate  the 
conceptive  faculty:  zoology,  comprehending  a  descrij)- 
tion  of  the  habits  of  the  wild  animals  of  the  forest; 
geography,  comprehending  descriptions  of  strange  and 
distant  lands;  mental  arithmetic,  in  which  the  funda- 
mental operations  of  numbers  are  conducted  without  the 
aid  of  symbolical  notation;  astronomy,  describing  the 
revolutions  of  the  vast  globes  which  move  through  the 
amplitudes  of  space;  and  so  on.  As  an  example,  let  the 
subject  of  the  lesson  be  the  form  and  magnitude  of  the  earth. 

Notes  of  a  Lesson  for  cultivating  the  Faculty  of  Conception. 
Age  of  the  pupils  ahout  seven. 

The  world  is  a  globe  like  an  orange;  the  orange  is  a 
little  globe,  but  the  world  is  a  vast  globe  many  thou- 
sands of  times  larger  than  the  orange.  When  you  look 
from  the  top  of  a  high  hill,  you  only  see  a  small  portion 
of  the  earth's  surface;  beyond  the  distant  hills  and  trees 
which  bound  your  view  there  are  hills  and  trees,  and 
again  hills  and  trees,  far,  far,  beyond.  Navigators  have 
sailed  round  the  earth.    The  length  of  a  line  going  round 


182  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

the  earth  is  about  25,000  miles.  You  cannot  tell  what 
a  great  distance  this  is,  but  I  shall  try  to  give  you  some 
idea  of  it.  You  have  travelled  in  a  railway  train,  and 
you  know  how  fast  it  moves;  well,  I  once  travelled  in  a 
fast  train  from  London  to  York  in  four  hours;  now  it 
would  take  the  train  constantly  going  about  three  weeks 
to  go  round  the  earth.  Such  is  the  great  size  of  the 
earth.  But  the  distance  round  the  earth  is  almost 
nothing  when  compared  with  the  celestial  spaces.  You 
have  seen  the  evening  star  (Venus)  when  the  sun  is 
sinking  in  the  western  sky; — the  sun  is  seen  beside  the 
farm-house,  and  Venus  over  the  forest,  only  a  few  miles 
from  the  farm-house;  now  the  real  distance  betwfen  the 
sun  and  Venus  is  upwards  of  60  millions  of  miles,  or 
more  than  two  thousand  times  the  girt  (circumference) 
of  our  earth.     And  so  on. 

In  this  lesson  we  shall  have  cultivated  other  faculties 
besides  that  of  conception. 

Definitions  of  terms  should  be  gived,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable, in  connection  with  the  things  or  properties 
which  are  designated  by  these  terms.  Thus,  for  exam- 
ple, if  we  wish  to  give  a  definition  of  the  term  elasticity^ 
we  should  take  a  piece  of  india-rubber  and  stretch  it  out 
before  the  pupil,  saying  to  him  at  the  same  time:  Now 
I  am  exerting  a  pulling  force,  so  as  to  stretch  this  long 
piece  of  india-rubber;  what  do  you  observe  in  reference 
to  the  alteration  in  its  shape  V  P,  You  have  stretched  it 
out, — it  is  longer  than  it  was  at  first.  T.  Now  I  release 
it, — now  the  stretching  force  ceases  to  act, — what  do 
you  now  observe  ?  P.  It  has  returned  to  its  original 
shape.  T.  This  property  is  called  elasticity,  and  the 
india-rubber  is  said  to  be  elastic.     Now  tell  me,  in  your 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  CONCEPTIVE  FACULTIES.  l83 

own  language,  what  you  mean  by  the  property  of  elas- 
ticity. P.  That  if  the  body  be  stretched  out,  and  then 
let  go  (released)  from  the  force,  it  will  return  to  its 
original  shape.  T.  True;  but  we  may  express  the  same 
thing  thus:  elasticity  is  that  property  whereby  a  body 
returns  to  its  original  shape  after  the  force  which  has 
altered  its  shape  is  withdrawn. 

Definition  of  form  should  be  given  in  connection 
with  the  actual  construction  of  the  figures  which  we 
wish  to  define.  As  our  geometrical  definitions  and  pos- 
tulates are  based  upon  experience  and  observation,  one 
of  the  first  steps  in  mathematical  instruction  is  to  sliow 
how  geometrical  figures  may  be  described  in  accordance 
with  their  definitions,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  aid  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  in  forming  general  or  abstract  con- 
ceptions of  these  figures.  The  best  way  of  showing  the 
possibility  of  drawing  a  perfect  figure  is  actually  to  draw 
it,  with  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  accuracy,  according 
to  the  conditions  of  its  abstract  definition.  Thus,  if  we 
wish  to  give  the  definition  of  a  circle,  we  should  take  a 
string  and  describe  a  circle  with  it,  before  the  pupil, 
saying  to  him  at  the  same  time: — The  figure  bounded 
by  this  chalk  line  is  called  a  circle;  the  fixed  point 
about  which  the  string  revolves  is  called  the  centre  of 
the  circle;  the  length  of  the  string,  which  constantly 
remains  the  same,  is  the  radius',  the  chalk  line  itself, 
which  forms  the  boundary  of  the  figure,  is  called  the 
circumference ;  and  the  line  drawn  through  the  centre, 
meeting  the  circumference  on  opposite  sides,  is  called  the 
diameter.  Now  what  have  you  to  say  about  the  distance 
of  the  circumference  of  a  circle  from  its  centre  ?  P.  It 
is  always  the  same.     T.  In  other  words,  you  would  say 


184  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

that  the  radii  of  a  circle  are  all  equal  to  one  another. 
Now  although  this  circle  is  not  so  perfect  as  it  is  possi- 
ble to  draw  one,  yet  you  can  tell  me  what  a  perfect  cir- 
cle is.  P.  A  circle  is  a  figure  bounded  by  a  line  which 
is  everywhere  at  the  same  distance  from  a  point  within 
it  called  the  centre. 

In  like  manner,  the  pupil  should  be  led  to  give  in  his 
own  language  the  definitions  of  the  terms  radius,  diaiue- 
ter,  circumference,  &c.  Without  materially  altering  the 
language  employed  by  the  pupil,  the  teacher  may  find  it 
desirable  to  improve  or  correct  it. 

Above  all  things,  children  should  be  accustomed  to 
write  their  own  ideas  in  their  own  language.  The 
writing  of  the  contents  of  a  book  is  better  than  the 
study  of  a  whole  commentary  upon  it;  and  the  writing 
of  the  subject-matter  of  a  single  page  often  stimulates 
the  appetite  for  learning  more  powerfully  than  the  read- 
ing of  a  whole  folio.  On  this  subject  Richter  observes: 
"  Since  writing  signifies  but  the  sign  of  things,  and 
brings  us  tlirough  it  to  the  things  themselves,  it  is  a 
stricter  isolator  and  clearer  collector  of  the  ideas  than 
even  speech  itself.  Sound  teaches  quickly  and  gener- 
ally; writing,  uninterru])tedly  and  with  more  accuracy. 
It  is  certain  that  our  representation  is  much  more  a 
mental  seeing  than  hearing,  and  that  our  metaphors 
play  far  more  on  an  instrument  of  color  than  of  sound, 
and  therefore  writing  which  lingers  under  the  eyes  must 
assist  the  formation  of  ideas  to  a  much  greater  extent 
than  the  rapid  flight  of  sound.  The  scholar,  indeed, 
carries  it  so  far  that  when  he  reflects  he  really  seems  to 
read  a  printed  page,  and  when  he  speaks,  to  give 
a   little   declamation   of    a    quickly    and    well    written 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  CONCEPTIVE  FACULTIES.  185 

pamphlet.  Let  the  boys  write  out  their  own  thoughts 
sooner  than  copy  yours,  so  that  they  may  learn  to  ex- 
change the  heavy-ringing  coin  of  sound  into  more  con- 
venient paper  money.  And  let  them  be  spared  the 
writing-texts  of  schoolmasters,  containing  the  praises  of 
industry,  of  writing,  of  their  master,  or  of  some  old 
prince;  in  short,  subjects  about  which  the  teacher  can 
produce  nothing  better  than  his  pupil.  Every  represen- 
tation without  some  actual  object  or  motive  is  poison. 
I  cannot  understand  schoolmasters  !  Must  the  man  even 
in  childhood  j^reach  from  the  appointed  Sunday  text, 
and  never  choose  one  for  himself  from  nature's  bible  ? 
Something  similar  may  be  said  about  the  writing  of 
open  letters  (an  unsealed  one  is  almost  inevitably  half 
untrue)  which  the  teachers  of  girls'  schools  require,  in 
order,  say  they,  to  exercise  their  pupils  in  epistolary 
style.  A  nothing  writes  to  a  nothing:  the  whole  affair 
undertaken  by  the  desire  of  the  teacher,  not  of  the  heart, 
is  a  certificate  of  the  death  of  thoughts,  an  announce- 
ment of  the  burning  of  the  materials.  Happy  is  it  if 
the  commanded  volubility  of  the  child,  arising  from 
coldness  and  addressed  to  emptiness,  do  not  accustom 
her  to  insincerity.  If  letters  must  be  forthcoming,  let 
them  be  written  to  some  fixed  person,  about  some  definite 
thing.  But  what  need  of  'so  much  ado  about  nothing,' 
since — not  even  excepting  political  or  literary  news- 
papers— nothing  can  be  written  so  easily  as  letters  on 
any  subject  when  there  is  a  motive  for  them,  and  the 
mind  is  fully  informed  of  the  matter." 


186  PIIILOSOrilY    OF    EDUCATION. 


CHAP.  III. 

CULTIVATION    OF    THE    INTELLECTUAL    FACULTIES,  CONTINUED.— CULTIVATION 
OF  THE  FACULTY  OF  ATTENTION. 

In  all  our  exercises  of  the  senses,  tlie  faculty  of  atten- 
tion should  be  assiduously  cultivated  by  all  the  artifices 
which  we  may  have  within  our  power.  The  habit  of 
directing  the  faculties  promptly  and  intensely  to  what- 
ever subject  comes  before  them,  lays  the  foundation  of 
the  intellectual  character.  This  habit  requires  careful 
cultivation:  all  the  pupils  should  be  expected  to  concen- 
trate the  whole  of  their  powers  of  observation  on  the 
subject  brought  before  them ;  imperfect  perception  should 
be  carefully  guarded  against,  and  erroneous  conceptions 
promptly  corrected;  no  subject  should  be  diminished 
until  all  its  legitimate  points  of  interest  have  been  fairly 
exhausted;  and  carelessness,  lassitude  or  indifference 
should  never  be  pemiitted  for  one  moment  to  exist. 
Besides  the  immediate  benefits  arising  from  such  a 
course  of  education,  it  exerts  a  most  momentous  influ- 
ence on  the  future  characters  of  the  pupils, — it  decides 
in  a  great  measure,  as  Fellenberg  observes,  "whether 
they  shall  be  superficial  and  desultory  throughout  life, 
or  whether  they  shall  maintain  the  contrary  habits  of 
application  and  accuracy  with  honorable  perseverance." 
So  much  depends  upon  the  faculty  of  attention,  that  its 
culture  should  form  a  leading  subject  of  practical 
education. 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  FACULTY  OF  ATTENTION.  187 

Tq  cultivate  the  faculty  of  attention,  the  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  child  must  be  voluntary.  By  constraint, 
you  may  get  a  child  to  learn  the  task  you  have  assigned 
him  J  but  by  this  exercise  you  do  not  cultivate  his  power 
of  attention, — you  have  only  stimulated  the  child  to 
exertion  by  the  fear  of  punishment,  or  it  may  be  by  the 
hope  of  reward.  By  displaying  the  wonders  of  nature 
or  art  to  a  child,  you  render  his  attention  voluntary,  and 
out  of  a  passive,  servile  creature,  you  make  an  active, 
self-dependent  agent.  The  best  means  of  cultivating 
the  habit  of  attention,  therefore,  is  to  associate  pleasure 
with  the  exertions  of  the  pupil,  especially  the  pleasure 
which  flows  from  success. 

To  cultivate  the  faculty  of  attention,  our  teaching 
should  be  suggestive;  that  is  to  say,  we  should  always 
leave  something  for  our  pupils  to  work  out  themselves; 
we  should  never  do  anything  for  them  which  they  can 
do  for  themselves;  and  whenever  we  assist  them,  it 
should  be  done  in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  them  as  speed- 
ily as  possible  to  go  on  without  assistance.  We  should 
not  seek  to  remove  the  fair  difficulties  which  lie  in  a 
pupil's  way,  but  rather  teach  him  how  to  surmount  them. 
Never  do  anything,  says  Abbott,  for  a  scholar,  but 
teach  him  to  do  it  for  himself.  How  many  cases 
occur,  in  the  schools  of  this  country,  where  the  boy 
brings  his  slate  to  the  teacher,  saying  he  cannot  do  a 
certain  sum !  The  teacher  takes  the  slate  and  pencil, — 
performs  the  work  in  silence, — brings  out  the  result, — 
returns  the  slate  to  the  hands  of  his  pupil,  who  walks  off 
to  his  seat,  and  goes  to  work  on  the  next  example,  per- 
fectly satisfied  with  the  manner  in  which  he  is  getting 


188  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

on.  Such  a  practice,  obviously,  cannot  conduce  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  faculty  of  attention. 

We  weaken  the  habit  of  attention  by  requiring  our 
pupils  to  study  too  many  things  at  once,  or  matters 
which  are  above  their  capacity ;  by  directing  their  minds 
too  long  to  any  one  subject;  by  urging  them  up  to,  or 
beyond,  the  point  of  fatigue;  or  by  repeating  too  fre- 
quently the  same  exercises  without  variation.  When- 
ever an  exercise  becomes  too  easy  or  too  monotonous  for 
our  pupils,  it  then  ceases  to  engage  their  attention,  and 
acts  injuriously  upon  their  minds  by  engendering  habits 
of  listlessness  and  indifference.  When  a  child,  for  ex- 
ample, writes  the  whole  page  of  a  copy  head,  we  gener- 
ally find  that  the  last  line  is  the  worst  written. 

A  skilful  teacher  will  sometimes  turn  to  account  the 
incidental  circumstances  which  are  calculated  to  draw 
off  the  attention  of  his  pupils  from  his  lesson :  a  butterfly 
enters  the  school-room, — in  a  moment  all  eyes  are  upon 
it;  instead  of  scolding  them  for  this  apparent  violation 
of  order,  he  cheerfully  enters  into  their  thoughts  and 
feelings,  catches  the  butterfly,  and  forthwith  gives  them 
a  conversational  lecture  upon  their  beautiful  winged 
visitor.  Faraday  never  lectures  so  brilliantly  as  when 
he  happens  to  fail  in  making  an  experiment. 

When  children  become  wearied  out  with  long  or  in- 
tense attention,  their  enthusiasm  may  often  be  revived 
by  bringing  in  some  fresh  motive  for  exertion.  Darwin 
thus  happily  illustrates  this  principle: — *' A  little  boy, 
who  was  tired  of  walking,  begged  of  his  papa  to  caiTy 
him.  *  Here,'  says  the  reverend  doctor,  *  ride  upon  my 
gold-headed  cane;'  and  the  pleased  child,  putting  it  be- 
tween his  legs,  galloped  away  with  delight." 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  FACULTY  OF  ATTENTION.  189 

On  the  cultivation  of  the  habit  of  attention,  Miss 
Edge  worth  observes:  "  Whatever  is  connected  with  pain 
or  pleasure  commands  our  attention:  but  to  make  this 
general  observation  useful  in  education,  we  must  examine 
what  degrees  of  stimulus  are  necessary  for  different 
pupils,  and  in  different  circumstances.  It  is  not  prudent 
early  to  use  violent  or  continual  stimulus,  either  of  a 
painful  or  peasurable  nature,  to  excite  children  to  appli- 
cation, because  we  should  by  an  intemperate  use  of 
these  weaken  the  mind,  and  because  we  may  with  a 
little  patience  obtain  all  we  wish  without  these  expe- 
dients. Besides  these  reasons,  there  is  another  potent 
argument  against  using  violent  motives  to  excite  atten- 
tion; such  motives  frequently  disturb  and  dissipate  the 
very  attention  which  they  attempt  to  fix.  If  a  child  be 
threatened  with  severe  punishment,  or  flattered  with  the 
promise  of  some  delicious  reward,  in  order  to  induce  his 
performance  of  any  particular  task,  he  desires  instantly 
to  perform  the  task;  but  this  desire  will  not  insure  his 
success;  unless  he  has  previously  acquired  the  habit  of 
voluntary  exertion,  he  will  not  be  able  to  turn  his  mind 
from  his  ardent  wishes,  even  to  the  means  of  accomplish- 
ing them.  He  will  be  in  the  situation  of  Alnaschar,  in 
the  Arabian  tales,  who,  whilst  he  dreamt  of  his  future 
grandeur,  forgot  his  immediate  business.  To  teach  any 
new  habit  or  art,  we  must  not  employ  any  alarming  ex- 
citements; small,  certain,  regularly-recurring  motives, 
which  interest,  but  which  do  not  distract  the  mind,  are 
evidently  the  best.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  Minorca 
were  said  to  be  the  best  slingers  in  the  world;  when 
they  were  children,  every  morning  what  they  were  to 
eat  was  slightly  fastened  to  high  poles,  and  they  were 


190  PHILOSOPHY  of  education. 

obliged  to  throw  down  their  breakfasts  with  their  slings 
from  the  places  where  they  were  siisjiended,  before  they 
could  satisfy  their  hunger.  The  motive  seems  to  have 
been  here  well  proportioned  to  the  effect  that  was  re- 
quired: it  could  not  be  any  great  misfortune  for  a  boy 
to  go  without  his  breakfast;  but  as  this  motive  returned 
every  morning,  it  became  sufficiently  serious  to  the 
hungry  slingers.  It  is  impossible  to  explain  this  subject 
so  as  to  be  of  use,  without  descending  to  minute  par- 
ticulars. When  a  mother  says  to  her  little  daughter,  as 
she  places  on  the  table  before  her  a  bunch  of  ripe  cher- 
ries, 'Tell  me,  my  dear,  how  many  cherries  are  there,  and 
I  will  give  them  to  you,' — the  child's  attention  is  fixed  in- 
stantly; there  is  a  sufficient  motive;  not  a  motive  which 
excites  any  violent  passions,  but  which  raises  just  such 
a  degree  of  hope  as  is  necessary  to  produce  attention. 
The  little  girl,  if  she  knows  from  experience  that  her 
mother's  promise  will  be  kept,  and  that  her  own  pa- 
tience is  likely  to  succeed,  counts  the  cherries  carefully, 
has  her  reward,  and  upon  the  next  similar  trial  she  will 
from  this  success  be  still  more  disposed  to  exert  her 
attention.  The  pleasure  of  eating  cherries,  associated 
with  the  pleasure  of  success,  will  balance  the  pain  of  a 
few  moments'  prolonged  application,  and  by  degrees  the 
cherries  may  be  withdrawn,  and  the  association  of 
pleasure  will  remain.  Objects  or  thoughts  that  have 
been  associated  with  pleasure,  retain  the  power  of 
pleasing;  as  the  needle  touched  by  the  loadstone,  ac- 
quires polarity,  and  retains  it  long  after  the  loadstone 
is  withdrawn,  whenever  attention  is  habitually  raised  by 
the  power  of  association,  we  should  be  careful  to  with- 
draw all  the  excitements  that  were  originally  used,  be- 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  FACULTY  OF  ATTENTION.  191 

cause  these  are  now  unnecessary;  and,  as  we  have  for- 
merly observed,  the  steady  rule  with  respect  to  stimulus 
should  be  to  give  the  least  possible  quantity  that  will 
produce  the  effect  we  want.  Success  is  a  great  pleasure; 
as  soon  as  children  become  sensible  to  this  pleasure,  that 
is  to  say,  when  they  have  tasted  it  two  or  three  times, 
they  will  exert  their  attention  merely  with  the  hope  of 
succeeding.  We  have  seen  a  little  boy  of  three  years 
old,  frowning  with  attention  for  several  minutes  together, 
whilst  he  was  trying  to  clasp  and  unclasp  a  lady's  brace- 
let; his  whole  soul  was  intent  upon  the  business,  he 
neither  saw  nor  heard  anything  else  that  passed  in  the 
room,  though  several  people  were  talking,  and  some 
happened  to  be  looking  at  him.  The  pleasure  of  success, 
when  he  had  clasped  the  bracelet,  was  quite  sufficient; 
he  looked  for  no  praise,  thpugh  he  was  perhaps  pleased 
with  the  sympathy  that  was  shown  in  his  success.  Sym- 
pathy is  a  better  reward  for  young  children  in  such  cir- 
cumstances than  praise,  because  it  does  not  excite  van- 
ity, and  it  is  connected  with  benevolent  feelings;  besides, 
it  is  not  so  violent  a  stimulus  as  applause.  Instead  of 
increasing  excitements  to  produce  attention  we  may 
vary  them,  which  will  have  just  the  same  effect.  When 
sympathy  fails,  try  curiosity;  when  curiosity  fails,  try 
praise;  when  praise  begins  to  loose  its  effect,  try  blame; 
and  when  you  go  back  again  to  sympathy,  you  will  find 
that,  after  this  interval,  it  will  have  recovered  all  its 
original  power.  There  are  some  people  who  have  the 
power  of  exciting  others  to  great  mental  exertions,  not 
by  the  promise  of  specific  rewards,  or  by  the  threats  of 
any  punishment,  but  by  the  ardent  ambition  which  they 
inspire,  by  the  high  value  which  is  set  upon  their  love 


182  PHILOSOPHY   OF    EDUCATION. 

and  esteem.  Wben  we  have  formed  a  high  opinion  of 
a  friend,  his  approbation  becomes  necessary  to  our  self- 
complacency,  and  we  think  no  labor  too  great  to  satisfy 
our  attachment.  Our  exertions  are  not  fatiguing,  be- 
cause they  are  associated  with  all  the  pleasurable  sen- 
sations of  affection,  self-complacency,  benevolence,  and 
liberty.  These  feelings  in  youth  produce  all  the  virtuous 
enthusiasm  characteristic  of  great  minds;  even  child- 
hood is  capable  of  it  in  some  degree,  as  those  parents 
well  know  who  have  ever  enjoyed  the  attachment  of  a 
grateful,  affectionate  child.  Those  who  neglect  to  culti- 
vate the  affections  of  their  pupils,  will  never  be  able  to 
excite  them  to  nolle  ends  by  nolle  means.  Theirs  will  be 
the  dominion  of  fear,  from  which  reason  will  emancipate 
herself,  and  from  which  pride  will  more  certainly  revolt. 
If  Henry  the  Fourth  of  France  had  been  reduced  like 
Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  to  earn  his  bread  as 
a  schoolmaster,  what  a  different  preceptor  he  would 
probably  have  made!  Dionysius  must  have  been  hated 
by  his  scholars  as  much  as  by  his  subjects;  for  it  is  said, 
that  *  he  practised  upon  children  that  tyranny  which  he 
could  no  longer  exercise  over  men.'  The  ambassador 
who  found  Henry  the  Fourth  playing  u[)Oii  the  carpet 
with  his  children,  would  probably  have  trusted  his  own 
children,  if  he  had  any,  to  the  care  of  such  an  affection- 
ate tutor.  Henry  the  Fourth  would  have  attracted  his 
pupils  whilst  he  instructed  them;  they  would  have 
exerted  themselves  because  they  could  not  have  been 
happy  without  his  esteem.  Henry's  courtiers,  or  rather 
his  friends,  for  though  he  was  a  king  he  had  friends, 
sometimes  expressed  surprise  at  their  own  disinterest- 
edness: *  This  king  pays  us  with  words,'  said  they,  *  and 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  FACULTY  OF  ATTENTION.  193 

yet  we  are  satisfied  ! '  Sully,  when  he  was  only  Baron 
de  Rosuy,  and  before  he  had  any  hopes  of  being  a  duke, 
w^as  once  in  a  passion  with  the  king,  his  master,  and 
half  resolved  to  leave  him;  'But  I  don't  know  how  it 
was,'  said  the  honest  minister;  '  with  all  his  faults,  there 
is  something  about  Henry  which  I  found  I  could  not 
leave;  and  when  I  met  him  again,  a  few  words  made 
me  forget  all  my  causes  of  discontent.'  Children  are 
more  easily  rewarded.  When  once  this  generous  desire 
of  affection  and  esteem  is  raised  in  the  mind,  their  exer- 
tions seem  to  be  universal  and  spontaneous;  children  are 
then  no  longer  like  machines,  which  require  to  be  wound 
up  regularly  to  perform  certain  revolutions;  they  are 
animated  with  a  living  principle,  which  directs  all  that 
it  inspires." 

While  the  teacher  endeavors  to  engage  the  attention 
of  all  his  pupils,  and  equally  to  ensure  the  progress  of 
all,  he  must  not  expect  to  find  that  they  will  all  manifest 
the  same  amount  of  attention,  or  that  they  will  all  make 
the  same  progress.  "  Do  not  hope,"  says  Abbott,  "  to 
make  all  your  pupils  alike.  Providence  has  determined 
that  human  minds  should  differ  from  each  other,  for  the 
very  purpose  of  giving  variety  and  interest  to  this  busy 
scene  of  life.  Now  if  it  were  possible  for  a  teacher  so 
to  plan  his  operations  as  to  send  his  pupils  forth  upon 
the  community,  formed  on  the  same  model  as  if  they 
were  made  by  machinery,  he  would  do  so  much  towards 
spoiling  one  of  the  wisest  plans  which  the  Almighty  has 
formed  for  making  this  world  a  happy  scene.  It  is  im- 
possible, if  it  were  wise,  and  it  would  be  foolish  if  it 
were  possible,  to  stimulate,  by  artificial  means,  the  rose, 
in  hope  of  its  reaching  the  size  and  magnitude  of  the 
Q 


194  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

apple-tree,  or  to  try  to  cultivate  the  fig  and  the  orange 
where  wheat  only  will  grow.  No;  it  should  be  the 
teacher's  main  design  to  shelter  his  pupils  from  every 
deleterious  influence,  and  to  bring  everything  to  bear 
upon  the  community  of  minds  before  him  whicli  will 
encourage,  in  each  one,  the  development  of  his  own 
native  powers.  Error  on  this  point  is  very  common. 
Many  teachers,  even  among  those  who  have  taken  high 
rank,  through  the  successes  with  which  they  have 
labored  in  this  field,  have  wasted  much  time  in  at- 
tempting to  do  what  can  never  be  done;  to  form  the 
character  of  those  brought  under  their  influence,  after  a 
certain  uniform  model,  which  they  have  conceived  as  the 
standard  of  excellence.  Their  pupils  must  write  just 
such  a  hand,  they  must  compose  in  just  such  a  style, 
they  must  be  similar  in  sentiment  and  feeling,  and  their 
manners  must  be  foimed  according  to  a  fixed  and  uni- 
form model;  and  when,  in  such  a  case,  a  pupil  comes 
under  their  charge  whom  Providence  has  designed  to  be 
entirely  different  from  the  beau-ideal  adopted  as  the 
standard,  more  time  and  pains  and  anxious  solicitude 
are  wasted  in  vain  attempts  to  produce  the  desired  con- 
formity than  half  the  school  requires  beside." 

The  teacher  must  suppose  human  nature  to  be  neither 
better  nor  worse  than  it  really  is;  he  must  not  expect  to 
find  the  faculty  of  attention  ready  formed  in  the  minds 
of  his  pupils;  on  the  contrary,  he  must  expect  that  the 
cultivation  of  this  faculty  in  his  different  pupils  will 
demand  his  constant  study,  and  that  unless  means  are 
adopted  to  secure  this  end  all  his  labor  will  be  utterly 
lost.  Some  teachers  seem  never  to  make  it  a  part  of 
their  calculation  that  their  pupils  will  be  guilty  of  wil- 


CULTIVATION  OP  THE  FACULTY  OF  ATTENTION.  195 

fill  inattention  or  do  anything  wrong,  and  then,  when 
any  misconduct  occurs,  they  are  disconcerted  and  irri- 
tated, and  look  and  act  as  if  some  unexpected  occurrence 
had  broken  in  upon  their  plans.  A  man  comes  home 
from  school  at  night  perplexed  and  irritated  at  the  petty 
acts  of  misconduct  and  inattention  of  his  pupils. 

"Sir,"  we  might  say  to  him,  "what  is  the  matter?" 

"  Why,  I  have  such  boys,  I  can  do  nothing  with  them. 
Were  it  not  for  their  inattention  and  want  of  respect,  I 
might  have  a  very  good  school." 

"  Were  it  not  for  the  boys  !  Why,  is  there  any  pecul- 
iar depravity  in  them  which  you  could  not  have  fore- 
seen?" 

"No;  I  suppose  they  are  pretty  much  like  all  other 
boys,"  he  replies  despairingly;  "they  are  all  hair-brained 
and  unmanageable.  The  plans  I  have  formed  for  my 
school  would  be  excellent,  if  my  boys  would  only  behave 
properly." 

"  Excellent  plans,"  might  we  not  reply,  "  and  yet  not 
adapted  to  the  materials  upon  which  they  are  to  oper- 
ate !  No.  It  is  your  business  to  know  what  sort  of 
beings  boys  are,  and  to  make  your  calculations  accord- 
ingly." 

The  means  which  we.  employ  in  cultivating  the  habit 
of  attention,  therefore,  should  have  a  due  regard  to  the 
natural  differences  of  temper  and  talents  of  our  pupils. 
Inattentive  boys  may  be  ranked  under  five  classes,  viz.: 
the  feehUy  the^  sluggish,  the  volatile,  the  timid,  and  the 
quich.  An  observing  teacher  soon  discovers  to  which 
class  any  particular  boy  should  be  referred,  and,  know- 
ing the  cause  of  inattention,  he  is  able  to  apply  the 
proper  remedy. 


196  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

1.  The  boy  of  feeble  intellect  is  inattentive  be- 
cause of  his  incapacity.  He  shows  a  feverish  anxiety 
to  understand  what  is  said  to  him,  and,  failing  to  do  so, 
he  soon  relaxes  his  attention  and  gives  up  in  despair. 
The  boy's  dulness  should  never  be  a  subject  of  censure, 
nor  should  he  be  stimulated  to  exertion  by  the  hope  of 
reward.  Everything  should  be  made  as  easy  for  him  as 
possible;  and  as  weariness  is  sure  to  follow  any  unusual 
stretch  of  attention,  his  lesson  should  be  short  as  well  as 
easy.  Above  all  things  we  should  be  patient  with  him, 
and  never  taunt  him  with  the  trouble  which  he  may  give 
us.  By  such  means,  the  feeble  boy  may  become  as  re- 
markable for  his  steadiness  and  perseverance  'as  he  is  for 
his  want  of  intellectual  power.  Such  boys  not  unfre- 
quently  become  useful  men.  "  If  the  Creator  has  so 
formed  the  mind  of  a  boy  that  he  must  go  through  life 
slowly  and  with  difficulty,  impeded  by  obstructions 
which  others  do  not  feel,  and  depressed  by  discourage- 
ments which  others  never  know,  his  lot  is  surely  hard 
enough,  without  having  you  to  add  to  the  trials  and 
sufferings,  which  sarcasm  and  reproach  from  you  can 
heap  upon  him.  Look  over  your  school-room,  therefore, 
and  whenever  you  find  one  whom  you  perceive  the  Cre- 
ator to  have  endued  with  less  intellectual  power  than 
others,  fix  your  eye  upon  him  with  an  expression  of 
kindness  and  sympathy." 

2.  The  sluggish,  lazy  boy  is  inattentive  from  a  want 
of  all  mental  activity.  He  hates  learning  for  the  trouble 
which  it  gives  him,  and  nothing  seems  to  afford  him  so 
much  enjoyment  as  lounging  at  his  ease.  His  intellectual 
powers  may  be  originally  good,  but  he  allows  them  to 
rust  away  for  want  of  use.     Here  some  powerful  stimu- 


CtTLTIVATlON  OF  THE  FACULTY  OF  ATTENTION.         197 

laiits  are  required  to  arouse  him  from  his  mental  torpor; 
every  motive  to  exertion  should  be  tried,  until  we  hit 
upon  the  right  one.  Locke  divides  sluggish  boys  into 
two  species:  those  who  are  indolent  only  at  their  books 
or  lessons;  and  those  who  are  indolent  in  everything, 
even  at  their  play;  the  mental  distemper  in  the  former 
case  seems  only  local  and  accidental,  whereas  in  the  lat- 
ter case  it  is  general  and  constitutional;  the  one,  under 
proper  management,  may  be  readily  cured,  but  the  other 
almost  defies  the  power  of  remedy.  The  book-saunterer, 
as  Locke  would  call  him,  is  generally  the  leader  at  all 
sports  and  games;  and  when  any  daring  act  of  mischief 
has  been  done,  he  is  sure  to  have  had  a  hand  in  it.  Scott 
and  Byron,  as  boys,  belonged  to  this  class,  since  their 
want  of  aptitude  for  learning  was  doubtless  attributable 
to  the  dogmatic  system  under  which  they  were  taught. 
We  should  never  despair  of  a  boy  who  exhibits  great 
energy  of  character  at  his  games;  for  in  a  sluggish  mind 
of  this  kind  we  often  find  the  slumbering  energies  of  a 
higher  intellect;  like  the  rough  diamond,  it  must  be  cut 
and  polished  before  it  can  shine  with  its  proper  bril- 
liancy and  loveliness.  The  most  hopeless  dunce  is  that 
boy  in  whom  confirmed  sluggishness  is  combined  with 
feebleness  of  intellect.    ^ 

3.  The  volatile  boy  is  inattentive  from  his  love  of 
novelty.  He  is  continually  staring  about  him,  he  is  the 
first  boy  in  the  class  to  notice  anything  unusual,  and  his 
exclamation  of  surprise  is  generally  the  key-note  of  a 
general  outbreak.  He  is  fond  of  fun,  and  is  a  general 
favorite  in  the  school,  for  he  is  neither  feared  nor  en- 
vied. His  disposition  to  wander  from  subject  to  subject 
prevents  him  from  becoming  sufficiently  acquainted  with 


198  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

any.  In  order  to  counteract  this  tendency,  we  should 
endeavor  to  fix  his  mind  upon  some  subject  for  which 
he  has  shown  something  like  a  predilection,  by  direct- 
ing his  attention  to  it  again  and  again,  until  we  have 
succeeded;  having  once  developed  the  faculty  in  rela- 
tion to  one  subject,  it  then  becomes  a  comparatively 
easy  task  to  succeed  with  other  subjects.  Examples  of 
application  and  perseverance  should  often  be  held  up  for 
his  imitation,  with  a  view  of  giving  a  proper  direction 
to  his  ambition  and  enthusiasm. 

4.  The  timid  boy  is  inattentive  for  want  of  a  sufficient 
confidence  in  his  own  powers,  as  well  as  from  a  want  of 
that  implicit  trust  which  children  generally  repose  in 
their  teachers.  The  mischievous  boys  in  the  school  look 
upon  him  as  fair  game  to  be  hunted  down.  He  sconces 
himself  in  the  most  distant  nook  of  the  school-room,  and 
looks  forth  from  his  retreat  upon  the  maps,  the  great 
card  containing  the  routine  of  lessons,  the  blackboard 
with  all  the  mysterious  chalk  lines  upon  it,  the  master 
with  his  pointer  in  his  left  hand  and  the  chalk  in  his 
right, — he  looks  upon  all  these,  as  well  as  the  other  school 
apparatus  and  appendages  with  fear  and  trembling. 
Poor  child !  how  can  he  direct  his  attention  to  the  les- 
son that  is  being  given  by  the  master,  who  probably 
stands,  thundering  forth  his  expositions  and  demonstra- 
tions, as  if  he  were  commanding  a  brigade  of  artillery. 
In  order  to  counteract  this  timidity,  he  should  be 
treated  with  gentleness  and  persuasion;  he.  should  be 
encouraged  to  apply  himself  to  his  work,  by  being  shown 
that  he  is  quite  able  to  perform  it;  he  should  never  be 
pressed  for  time;  he  should  be  shown  that  patience  and 
earnest  attention  can    do  as  mucli,  or  even  more,  for 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  FACULTY  OF  ATTENTION.  199 

him,  than  quickness  of  intellect,  and  that  to  be  slow  and 
sure  is  more  coninjcndable  than  to  be  quick  and  uncer- 
tain. Such  children  are  confirmed  in  their  diffidence, 
when  they  find  that  they  cannot  understand  or  remem- 
ber one-tenth  of  the  knowledge  forced  upon  them  by  an 
injudicious  teacher. 

5.  The  quick,  clever  boy  is  inattentive  from  his  ex- 
treme mental  activity,  and  from  his  excess  of  self-confi- 
dence. He  is  a  great  talker,  but  a  bad  listener;  he 
readily  attains  a  superficial  knowledge  of  a  subject,  but 
never  attempts  to  penetrate  its  depths;  from  the  quick- 
ness of  his  apprehension,  he  cannot  listen  with  patient 
attention  to  the  long  sermonizing  lessons  of  a  slow 
teacher,  if  he  is  unfortunate  enough  to  have  a  slow 
teacher,  who  methodically  doles  out  his  knowledge  by 
the  hour;  at  the  close  of  such  a  lesson,  he  rouses  himself 
up,  catches  the  few  concluding  remarks,  and  upon  ex- 
amination appears  to  have  gained  a  fair  knowledge  of 
the  lessons.  The  powers  of  such  a  boy  should  be  fully 
taxed;  and  to  cure  him  of  his  presumption  and  conceit, 
he  should  be  occasionally  puzzled  with  questions,  not 
difficult  in  themselves,  but  requiring  for  their  solution 
those  peculiar  attainments  in  which  he  is  most  deficient, 
Such  boys  rarely,  if  ever,  realize  the  brilliant  expecta- 
tions of  their  friends;  like  the  very  early  spring  blos- 
soms, they  soon  wither  and  die;  whereas  true  genius  is 
slow  in  its  growth— the  noblest  trees  are  latest  in  bear- 
ing fruit,  and  the  largest  animals  are  last  in  arriving  at 
perfection.  Mere  talent  requires  labor  for  its  develop- 
ment, but  genius  develops  itself  spontaneously  and  un- 
obtrusively. 

6.  The  boy  of  genius  is  not  ijiJ^feaJi^eJiithe  ordinary 

if<y?^  OF  TH 


200  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

acceptation  of  the  word;  for  he  is  occasionally  capable 
of  the  highest  efforts  of  attention;  he  sits  in  a  half 
dreaming  mood,  watching  for  the  moment  when  a  subject 
suited  to  his  peculiar  taste  shall  present  itself;  to  a 
common  observer  he  appears  dull,  but  it  is  the  dulness 
which  proceeds  from  inward  thought.  His  absence  of 
mind  is  often  mistaken  for  stupidity;  and  his  laconic, 
yet  significant,  answers  to  questions,  are  frequently  at- 
tributed to  a  want  of  a  logical  concatenation  of  ideas; 
but  to  appreciate  him,  we  should  consider  what  he  does 
not  say,  not  less  than  what  he  actually  does  say.  He  is 
a  quiet,  retiring,  reflective,  strange  boy; — nobody  can 
understand  him, — he  is  always  doing  what  he  should 
not  do,  and  rarely  does  what  he  is  required  to  do, — he 
talks  when  he  should  be  silent,  and  loses  his  power  of 
speech  when  he  has  to  answer  a  question;  nobody  can 
understand  him,  because  nobody  will  understand  him; 
but  all  at  once  he  shows  a  predilection  for  some  par- 
ticular study, — nature  at  length  asserts  her  prerogative, 
— his  winged  spirit  bursts  the  walls  of  its  prison  house, 
and  mounts  on  high  into  its  kindred  sphere  of  thought; 
now  everybody  understands  him, — everybody  knew 
perfectly  well  that  his  wayward  acts  were  aberrations 
of  genius,  and  that  there  could  be  no  mistaking  the 
sovereign  stamp  which  nature  had  impressed  upon  his 
brow.  Poor  boy!  if  you  had  fallen  in  taking  your 
etliereal  flight,  what  scorn,  what  obloquy  would  have 
been  yours! 

It  becomes  the  sacred  duty,  not  less  than  the  high 
privilege,  of  the  schoolmaster  of  the  poor  to  foster  and 
protect  the  boy  of  genius,  struggling  amid  the  pressure 
of  indigence  and  persecution.     When  his  heart  is  about 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  FACULTY  OF  ATTENTION.  -iv/x 

to  sink  under  the  conflict,  let  hfm  be  told  of  the  tri- 
umphs of  those  kindred  spirits  who  have  gone  before 
him;  Thomas  Simpson,  who  studied  mathematics  at  the 
loom, — Hugh  Miller,  who  mused  on  geology  when  he 
was  hewing  stones, — Michael  Faraday,  who  made  chem- 
ical experiments  when  he  was  a  journeyman  book- 
binder,— Ferguson,  who  watched  the  stars  as  he  tended 
his  flocks, — Gifford,  who  studied  Latin  when  he  was 
making  shoes, — Peter  Nicholson,  who  wrote  his  work 
on  carpentry  when  he  was  at  the  bencli, — Robert  Burns, 
who  carolled  his  sweetest  songs  as  he  followed  the 
plough — Benjamin  Franklin,  who  drew  the  lightning 
from  the  clouds  when  he  kept  a  printer's  shop. 

What  are  we  to  do  with  a  boy  of  genius?  The  fact 
is,  we  should  rather  ask — What  should  we  refrain  from 
doing?  We  cannot  cultivate  his  faculty  of  attention, 
for  in  him  it  grows  best  spontaneously;  is  it  not  better 
therefore,  to  leave  him  to  the  beiit  of  his  own  genius? 
Laplace  would  have  been  as  inattentive  at  an  opera  as 
Mozart  would  have  been  at  a  mathematical  lecture. 

The  faculty  of  concentration,  or  continuous  attention, 
which  requires  careful  culture  in  ordinary  minds,  seems 
to  spring  spontaneously  into  existence  in  the  mind  en- 
dowed with  genius.  This  spontaneous  development  of 
attention  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  surest  evidences 
of  genius.  Great  men  have  always  been  remarkable  for 
the  power  of-concentrating  all  the  energies  of  their  soul 
on  their  favorite  subject.  Newton  attributed  his  own 
greatness  to  the  power  which  he  had  of  "keeping  a  sub- 
ject constantly  in  his  mind."  The  mathematician, 
absorbed  day  after  day  in  the  investigation  of  the  prop- 
erties of  lines  and  symbols,  gives  evidence  of  this  con- 


ooo  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

tinnous  attention.  The  philosopher,  who  shuts  himself 
out  from  the  gay  worhl,  denies  himself  the  ordinary  en- 
joyments of  existence,  and  curbs  the  kindly  sympathies 
of  his  nature,  to  live  in  a  world  of  abstractions — the 
world  of  his  own  thoughts — he  too  gives  evidence  of 
this  remarkable  power.  Genius  seems  to  be  impelled  by 
an  irresistible  law  to  deny  itself  everything  which  lies 
without  the  sphere  of  its  action,  and  to  live  upon  the 
impalpable  essences  of  its  own  creation.  Such  men  are 
scarcely  to  be  envied, — they  too  often  become  martyrs 
to  their  application,  or  unhappy  victims  to  the  intensity 
of  their  own  powder.  In  concluding  these  observations, 
we  venture  to  give 

A  short  digression  on  thought,  language,  and  genius. 

Who  can  measure  the  pulsations  of  thought  ?  Even 
our  mightiest  thoughts  come  and  go  like  flashes  of  the 
subtile  lightning.  Language  retorts  the  passage  of 
thought,  as  imperfect  conductors  impede  the  passage  of 
electricity.  Thought  is  something  very  different  from 
language,  yet  we  find  it  difficult  to  separate  the  one  from 
the  other.  We  may  have  an  exuberance  of  language 
with  a  poverty  of  thought;  and  we  may  have  thoughts 
which  language  but  poorly  conveys.  Ordinary  thinkers 
are  never  at  a  loss  for  words;  but  original  thinkers  often 
feel  the  insufficiency  of  language — their  ideas  have  to 
struggle  their  way  into  the  world  of  expression.  Common- 
place thoughts  are  easily  expressed,  but  language  often 
fails  to  transmit  some  of  our  higher  conceptions.  There 
are  thoughts  to  which  language  never  yet  gave  expression 
just  as  there  are  systems  whose  light  has  not  yet  reached 
our  world.     Writings  of  genius  are  not  so  much  valued 


THOUGHT,  LANGUAGE,  AND  GENIUS.        203 

for  the  mere  knowledge  which  they  contain,  as  for  the 
marvellous  power  which  they  have  in  creating  thought. 
Thoughts  of  genius  are  always  new, — they  are  always 
suggestive, — they  awaken  fresh  trains  of  thought  in 
every  mind  that  seeks  to  interpret  them;  this  is  no 
doubt  chiefly  owing  to  the  inadequacy  of  the  language 
to  give  a  sufficiently  full  expression  to  the  vastness  or  in- 
tricacy of  the  thought,  so  that  there  is  always  something 
like  indefiniteness  about  the  language.  The  truth  is, 
language  cannot  comprehend  the  length  and  breadth 
and  depth  of  a  great  conception;  for  the  language  is 
but  the  shadow  of  the  substance.  Ever  since  the  dawn 
of  creation,  the  sun  has  shed  his  light  upon  the  host  of 
planets  which  surround  him,  yet  he  has  lost  nothing  of 
his  original  splendor;  so  in  like  manner  the  glorious 
productions  of  creative  genius  have  shed  their  light,  age 
after  age,  upon  the  world,  yet  they  still  shine  on  with 
undiminished  brilliancy  and  lustre.  How  exhaustless 
are  the  works  of  genius  !  that  god-like  power  which  cre- 
ates a  world  for  the  study  of  generations  of  ordinary 
men.  Newton  affirmed  that  the  diamond  was  inflamma- 
ble, but  four  generations  had  passed  away  before  the 
conception  was  confirmed  by  experiment;  and  his  law 
of  gravitation  has  not  yet  attained  its  full  development. 
After  a  lapse  of  three  centuries,  the  conceptions  of 
Shakspeare  have  lost  nothing  of  their  virgin  freshness 
and  bloom. 

Slight  circumstances  often  determine  the  peculiar 
bent  of  genius.  The  swinging  of  a  chandelier  in  a  ball- 
room led  Galileo  to  the  invention  of  the  pendulum;  the 
great  philosopher  heard  not  the  inspiring  music,  saw  not 
the   gay,   glittering  throng   with   which    he   was   sur- 


204  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

rounded,  felt  no  rapture  at  the  smile  of  beauty;  bis  at- 
tention was  concentrated  on  tbe  syncbronism  of  the 
vibrations  of  tbe  chandelier;  thousands  had  age  after 
age  looked  upon  the  same  thing,  without  iiaving  caught 
hold  of  the  grand  idea  which  it  was  calculated  to  sug- 
gest. While  in  the  act  of  bathing,  Arcbimedes  was  led 
to  the  conception  of  specific  gravity;  his  attention  was 
awakened  by  feeling  the  buoyancy  of  bis  body  when 
submerged  in  the  water.  The  falling  of  an  apple,  it  is 
said,  led  Newton  to  tbe  discovery  of  gravitation.  Had 
none  before  him  asked  the  question — why  does  the  apple 
fall  ?  Doubtless  many  had  asked  the  question,  but  to 
them  nature  bad  given  no  satisfactory  resj^onse, — she 
had  only  echoed  back  the  inquiry;  but  the  simple  fact 
became,  in  the  mind  of  the  prince  of  philosophers,  the 
first  link  in  the  chain  of  induction,  which  led  him  to  the 
great  principle  which  animates  the  material  universe. 
Our  greatest  philosopher  was  knighted:  does  the  name 
of  Newton  appear  less  illustrious  by  being  shorn  of  its 
title  of  nobility  ?  Newton  might  do  honor  to  the  title, 
but  it  could  confer  no  honor  upon  him.  No  public 
monument  has  yet  been  reared  to  bear  testimony  to  a 
nation's  gratitude  for  the  achievements  of  her  greatest 
son:  everywhere  we  meet  with  statues  and  towers  and 
triumphal  pillars,  erected  to  record  the  existence  of  our 
monarchs,  or  to  commemorate  tbe  deeds  of  our  states- 
men and  warriors;  but,  as  if  conscious  of  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  such  a  tribute,  we  have  reared  no  monument 
to  him,  whose  fame  is  as  far  above  that  of  kings,  or 
statesmen,  or  heroes,  as  heaven  is  above  earth.  Foolish 
conception  !  raise  a  monument  of  stone  and  mortar  to 
perpetuate  the  memory  of  Newton  !  his  monument  is 


THOUGHT,  LANGUAGE,  AND  GENIUS.        205 

the  temple  of  the  universe,  and  his  name  is  written  in 
imperishable  characters  in  the  great  laws  which  he  dis- 
covered. The  pyramids  of  Egypt  will  moulder  and 
decay;  empires,  which  at  present  rule  the  world,  will 
one  day  appear  as  little  specks  upon  the  stream  of  time; 
old  ocean  will  change  its  channel;  but,  secure  amid  the 
wreck  of  time,  the  fame  of  Newton  will  be  seen  tower- 
ing in  growing  majesty  and  grandeur,  for  the  laws 
which  he  discovered  will  have  then  received  a  fuller  de- 
velopment. The  superhuman  genius  of  Newton  ap- 
peared at  its  proper  epoch,  that  is,  when  the  laws  of 
gravitation  had  to  be  revealed  to  humanity.  No  physical 
law  has  been  discovered  out  of  which  such  vast  results 
have  been  evolved;  indeed,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive 
that  there  actually  remains  to  be  discovered  any  law  of 
nature  more  comprehensive  than  that  of  gravitation, — 
which  enables  us  at  once  to  look  back  upon  the  past  his- 
tory of  the  solar  system,  and  forward  to  the  aspect  which 
it  will  present  at  any  given  future  period, — which  enables 
us  to  determine  the  existence,  position  and  magnitude  of 
planetary  bodies  which  had  eluded  the  searching  power 
of  the  telescope, — which  carries  our  intelligence  into 
those  regions  of  space  where  the  human  eye  has  not 
penetrated,  or  over  which  the  light  of  our  sun  has  not 
yet  travelled.  Upon  what  apparently  trifling  circum- 
stances great  discoveries  often  depend  !  Long  before 
the  present  seas  had  rolled,  or  the  present  vegetation 
had  covered  the  earth,  a  huge  monster  fortuitously  left 
its  footprints  upon  a  plastic  strand,  which  in  the  lapse  of 
cycles  of  ages  became  hardened  and  covered  over  with 
rocks  and  clays;  but  the  geologist  excavates  these  im- 
prints, and  in  his  hands  they  become  the  medals  of  ere- 


206  nilLOSOPHY   OF   EDUCATION. 

ation,  telling  of  its  vast  antiquity,  and  of  the  races 
which  had  been  time  after  time  swept  away  from  the 
face  of  the  globe  before  it  attained  its  present  condition 
of  perfect  maturity.  How  marvellous  are  the  discoveries 
of  modern  philosophy  !  Truly  the  human  race  is  but  in 
its  infancy. 


CHAP.  IV. 

CULTIVATION     OF   THE    INTELLECTUAL    FACULTIES,    CONTINUED.— CULTIVATION 
OF    MEMORY  AND  RECOLLECTION. 

The  art  of  memory,  says  a  distinguished  writer,  is  the 
art  of  attention;  so  that,  in  fact,  the  cultivation  of 
memory  reduces  itself  to  the  cultivation  of  the  habit  of 
attention.  If  we  take  care  to  engage  the  attention,  we 
may  safely  leave  the  memory  to  take  care  of  itself. 

There  is,  however,  a  great  difference  between  simple 
memory  and  that  modification  of  it  which  we  call  recol- 
lection. Memory  is  a  receptive  faculty,  and  seems  to 
act,  in  some  measure,  independently  of  the  will ;  it  is,  per- 
hai)s,  more  subject  to  physical  conditions  than  any  other 
intellectual  faculty,  and  being  considered,  in  itself,  more 
a  natural  than  an  acquired  gift,  it  almost  entirely  lies 
without  the  sphere  of  the  educator.  On  the  other  hand, 
recollection  is  to  a  great  extent  a  voluntary  power, 
which  grows  with  our  intellectual  growth,  and  there- 
fore admits  of  the  highest  degree  of  culture. 


CULTIVATION  OF  MEMORY  AND  RECOLLECTION.         207 

The  power  of  remembering  facts  in  the  exact  order 
in  which  they  transpired,  or  of  remembering  words  in 
the  order  in  which  they  were  spoken  or  printed,  may  be 
called  a  mere  local  memory,  where  no  judgment  is  exer- 
cised by  the  individual  in  the  selection  or  arrangement 
of  the  materials;  but  that  kind  of  memory  which  is 
based  upon  a  proper  classification  of  the  ideas,  and  not 
upon  mere  local  or  incidental  relations,  may  be  called  a 
philosophical  memoi-y — the  recollective  faculty  in  its 
highest  sense;  for  while  it  constitutes  a  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  truly  cultivated  mind,  it  must  at  the  same 
time  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important  instru- 
ments in  the  formation  of  the  intellectual  character. 
Teachers  are  too  apt  to  overrate  the  value  of  a  mere 
local  memory:  the  truth  is,  the  boy  with  a  ready,  par- 
rot-like memory  pleases  everybody,  whereas  the  boy 
who  has  to  cogitate  and  con  over  what  he  wishes  to  re- 
member, rarely  stands  high  in  popular  estimation. 

There  are  great  original  differences  in  the  power  of 
memory  amongst  boys:  some  boys  have  naturally  a 
quick  as  well  as  a  retentive  memory;  others  readily  re- 
ceive knowledge,  but  as  quickly  lose  it;  indeed,  a  quick 
memory  is  not  generally  a  retentive  one,  for  we  find 
that  what  we  readily  learn  we  easily  forget,  and  what 
we  are  at  some  pains  to  acquire  we  never  lose.  Some 
schoolmasters  consider  that  the  best  kind  of  memory  is 
that  which  simply  retains  the  greatest  number  of  ideas 
for  the  longest  time;  others,  with  more  discrimination, 
prefer  the  recollective,  reflective  kind  of  memory,  which 
selects  and  arranges  the  facts  and  ideas  as  they  are  com- 
mitted to  the  intellectual  treasury  for  future  use.  A 
great   verbal  or  local   memory  has  hitherto  been   too 


208  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

much  regarded  as  the  sign  and  seal  of  intellectual  superi- 
ority. A  good  memory  is  what  everybody  can  appreciate, 
but  the  higher  powers  of  intellect  cannot  be  tested  by  a 
common  observer.  The  leading  educational  axiom,  with 
a  certain  class  of  teachers,  seems  to  be — exercise  the 
memory,  and  out  of  its  exercise  all  the  other  intellectual 
faculties  will  be  evolved — give  the  child  the  materials 
of  thought,  and  all  the  higher  functions  of  thought  will 
develop  themselves — fill  the  memory  with  ideas,  and 
then  reason,  judgment  and  imagination  will  spring  up 
spontaneously.  This  is  a  gross  error  in  education:  the 
memory  does  not  exercise  the  wonder-working  powers 
which  these  teachers  would  assign  to  it;  except,  per- 
haps, in  classical  learning,  a  mere  verbal  memory  is  not 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  acquisition  of  know^l- 
edge,  and  in  reality  it  is  of  very  little  account  as  regards 
the  development  of  the  other  powers  of  the  mind.  A 
great  memory  is  not  at  all  essential  to  greatness  of  in- 
tellect: Newton  and  Shakespeare  were  neither  remark- 
able for  extraordinary  erudition  nor  for  unusual  powers 
of  memory.  Indeed,  men  who  are  prodigies  in  this  re- 
spect are  never  otherwise  distinguished  for  intellectual 
endowments:  their  minds  become  so  loaded  with  the 
ideas  of  others,  as  to  render  them  incapable  of  exercising 
any  independent  thought.  Memory,  to  a  great  man,  is 
an  humble  confidential  servant, — a  sort  of  a  keeper  of 
the  stores, — who  is  expected  to  guard  and  preserve  care- 
fully whatever  is  committed  to  his  charge,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  be  always  ready  to  bring  forward  anything 
at  the  moment  it  is  wanted.  We  hold  that  an  unusual 
manifestation  of  this  j)owor  in  childhood  tends  to  coun- 
teract the  healthful  development  of  the  other  intellectual 


CULTIVATION  OF  MEMORY  AND  RECOLLECTION.         209 

powers.  The  boy  who  can  readily  commit  the  language 
of  others  to  memory,  is  not  compelled  to  exercise  his 
judgment  upon  the  ideas  which  are  intended  to  be  con- 
veyed to  his  mind;  besides,  through  a  want  of  discrim- 
ination on  the  part  of  the  master,  boys  with  a  ready 
memory  almost  invariably  rise  to  the  highest  places  in 
the  school,  and  thus  no  adequate  inducement  can  be 
held  out  to  them  to  cultivate  any  other  faculty;  they 
consequently  seek  distinction  by  the  path  which  is  most 
accessible  to  them.  Teachers  are  not  sufficiently  aware 
of  the  evils  resulting  from  a  negligent  disregard  of 
the  laws  of  our  intellectual  and  moral  nature.  That  boy 
whose  memory  is  cultivated  at  the  expense  of  his  judg- 
ment, cannot  become  a  really  useful  member  of  society; 
his  vanity  is  inflated  by  the  unmerited  applause,  and  he 
is  unconsciously  led  to  indulge  in  dreams  of  future 
greatness  which  will  never  be  realized:  on  the  other 
hand,  the  boy  with  a  slow,  unostentatious,  recollective 
memory,  is  slighted  and  discouraged.  A  teacher  should 
never  compliment  a  boy  for  having  a  good  natural 
memory;  boys  of  this  kind  soon  enough  gain  distinction 
for  themselves,  for  a  good  memory  is  a  truly  marketable 
sort  of  thing,  which  meets  with  patronage  in  all  com- 
panies and  from  all  classes  of  society;  and  it  is  further 
important  to  observe  that  there  is  no  gift  of  which  a 
boy  more  readily  becomes  unduly  and  obtrusively  vain, 
than  that  of  memory.  The  teacher  should,  on  all  fitting 
occasions,  give  the  highest  praise  to  the  boy  who  habit- 
ually cultivates  the  recollective  faculty.  It  is,  however, 
not  surprising  that  classical  teachers  should  attach  an 
undue  importance  to  the  cultivation  of  verbal  memory. 
Bofore  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  printing,  a  retentive 


210  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

memory  was  one  of  the  most  essential  prerequisites  for 
literary  or  even  for  scientific  distinction.  "A  man  who 
had  read  a  few  manuscripts,  and  could  repeat  them,  was 
a  wonder  and  a  treasure;  he  could  travel  from  place  to 
place,  and  live  by  his  learning;  he  was  a  circulating 
library  to  a  nation,  and  the  more  books  he  could  carry 
in  his  head  the  better;  he  was  certain  of  an  admiring 
audience  if  he  could  repeat  what  Aristotle  or  Saint 
Jerome  had  written;  and  he  had  far  more  encourage- 
ment to  engrave  the  words  of  others  in  his  memory,  than 
to  invent  or  judge  for  himself."  And  even  within  the 
last  fifty  years,  before  Mechanics'  Institutions  had  been 
established,  when  books  were  dear  and  scarce  amongst 
the  middle  and  lower  classes  of  society,  a  person  with  a 
retentive  memory  was  highly  prized  and  esteemed  in 
company.  But  now,  since  knowledge  has  been  diffused 
over  the  length  and  bredth  of  the  land,  in  the  form  of 
cheap  and  useful  books,  this  species  of  memory  has  been 
very  much  lowered  in  value.  People  now  have  the 
power  of  referring  to  a  book  for  any  particular  informa- 
tion without  being  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  consult- 
ing a  man  who  may  have  read  the  book.  We  need  not 
now  encumber  our  memory  with  passages  from  any 
author  which  we  may  wish  to  quote;  it  is  only  necessary 
for  us  to  turn  to  the  page  of  the  book  itself  where  the 
subject  is  treated.  Mere  erudition,  too,  has  lost  much 
of  its  value  in  the  present  age  of  literature.  We  have 
grown  too  wise  for  our  hoary  and  decrepid  tutors — the 
ancients.  We  cannot  any  longer  amuse  ourselves  with 
the  puerilities  of  ancient  philosophy,  or  pay  our  adora- 
tions at  the  shrine  of  paganism,  with  all  its  miserable 
ideal  creations  of  gods  and  goddesses.     Tlu'  world  lias 


CULTIVATION  OF  MEMORY  AND  RECOLLECTION.         211 

at  least  passed  the  first  stage  of  its  infancy,  and  the 
dawnings  of  its  approaching  youth  are  already  being 
seen  from  the  tops  of  the  mountains.  Positive  philo- 
sophy in  its  strictest  and  most  useful  sense,  and  Chris- 
tian philosophy  in  its  highest  and  purest  sense,  have 
been  transfused  through  the  countless  channels  in  which 
our  knowledge  at  present  flows, — from  the  all-creative 
minds  as  a  centre  to  the  utmost  extremities  of  the  body 
of  society.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
a  good  verbal  memory,  under  proper  management,  and 
duly  subordinate  to  the  higher  power,  is  not  without  its 
value  in  the  formation  of  the  intellectual  character,  nor 
is  its  use  to  be  ignored  as  an  instrument  in  the  acqui- 
sition of  technical  knowledge.  But  we  again  assert  that 
the  main  business  of  the  teacher  is  the  cultivation  of  the 
faculty  of  recollection — the  philosophical  memory — not 
that  of  mere  local  or  verbal  memory. 

Having  pointed  out  some  of  the  evils  which  have 
crept  into  our  present  plans  of  education,  relative  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  memory,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  con- 
sider the  principles  upon  which  memory,  in  its  widest 
sense,  may  be  strengthened  and  improved. 

Memory  is  very  much  influenced  by  attention,  and  hy  our  existing 
intellectual  habits. 

We  always  remember  those  things  best  on  which  we 
have  bestowed  the  most  earnest  attention.  All  those 
means,  therefore,  which  we  employ  for  the  cultivation  of 
the  faculty  of  attention,  will  also  tend  to  cultivate  that 
of  memory. 

The  degree  of  attention  which  we  bestow  on  any  sub- 
ject is  a  voluntary  act,  but  the  peculiar  direction  which 


212  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

our  minds  will  take  depends  almost  entirely  upon  our 
previous  intellectual  habits  and  associations.  "  Of  four 
individuals,"  says  Abercrombie,  "who  are  chiving  an 
account  of  a  journey  through  the  same  district,  one  may 
describe  chiefly  its  agricultural  produce;  another,  its 
mineralogical  character;  a  third,  its  picturesque  beau- 
ties; while  the  fourth  may  not  be  able  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  anything  except  the  state  of  the  roads  and  the 
facilities  of  travelling.  The  same  facts  or  objects  must 
have  passed  before  the  senses  of  all  the  four;  but  their 
rememberance  of  them  depends  upon  the  points  to  which 
their  attention  was  directed.  Besides  the  manner  here 
alluded  to,  in  which  the  attention  is  influenced  by  pre- 
vious habits  or  pursuits,  some  persons  have  an  active, 
inquiring  state  of  mind,  w^hich  keeps  the  attention  fully 
engaged  upon  whatever  is  passing  before  them;  while 
others  give  way  to  a  listless,  inactive  condition,  which 
requires  to  be  strongly  excited  before  the  attention  is 
roused  to  the  degree  required  for  remembrance.  The 
former,  accordingly,  remember  a  great  deal  of  all  that 
passes  before  them,  either  in  reading  or  observation. 
The  latter  are  apt  to  say  that  they  are  deficient  in  mem- 
ory: their  deficiency,  however,  is  not  in  memory,  but  in 
attention;  and  this  appears  from  the  fact,  that  they  do 
not  forget  anything  which  deeply  engages  their  feelings, 
or  concerns  their  interest." 

Our  power  of  memory  is  limited  by  our  predilections: 
no  person  has  a  memory  for  every  subject  of  knowledge^ 
because  no  person  possesses  a  taste  and  talent  for  every 
subject.  The  mathematician  readily  remembers  his 
theorems  and  formulas,  whilst  he  forgets  even  the  name 
of  the  existing  prime  minister.     The  antiquarian,  obliv- 


MEMORY  INFLUENCED  BY  ASSOCIATIONS.  213 

ious  of  the  common  occurrences  of  the  day,  suffers  not 
a  single  past  event  which  is  hallowed  by  time  to  escape 
from  his  intellectual  treasury.  The  school-boy,  who 
perfectly  remembers  the  names  of  flowers,  and  trees,  and 
birds,  and  animals,  tells  his  master  that  he  cannot  say 
his  task,  because  he  has  got  a  bad  memory.  The  girl, 
who  retains  the  nnmes  of  all  the  articles  of  fashionable 
dress,  cannot  even  remember  the  titles  of  Iier  father's 
books.  Under  proper  management,  however,  the  person 
who  can  remember  things  may  also  be  made  to  remem- 
ber words.  In  order  to  give  a  child  a  memory  for  any 
particular  subject,  we  should  invest  it  with  some  charm 
calculated  to  interest  his  feelings. 

Memory  is  very  much  influenced  hy  Associations. 

The  principle  of  association  performs  a  most  impor- 
tant part  in  nearly  all  our  mental  operations.  By  the 
association  of  ideas,  two  or  more  conceptions,  or  ideas, 
which  have  been  contemplated  together,  or  in  immediate 
succession,  become  so  connected  or  associated  in  our 
minds  that  one  of  them  recurring  recalls  the  others  in 
the  same  order  in  Avhich  they  were  at  first  contemplated. 
Moreover,  a  particular  idea  suggests  another  idea  which 
has  some  kind  of  relation  to  it;  the  second  idea  suggests 
a  third,  and  so  on  to  any  continued  series  or  train  of 
ideas.  This  train  of  successive  suggestion  may  go  on 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  last  idea,  or  the  one  which  we 
stop  to  contemplate,  may  have  no  relation  to  the  one 
with  which  we  first  started,  excepting  in  the  chain  of 
association  existing  in  our  minds.  The  particular  chain 
of  thoughts  which  arises  in  our  minds  is  no  doubt  much 
influenced  by  our  intellectual  habits,  and  by  associatioiis 


214  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

previously  existing  in  our  minds;  but  there  are  also  cer- 
tain general  principles  of  relation,  whereby  one  thought 
suggests  another.  These  principles  of  association  may 
be  referred  to  three  heads:  1.  Contiguity  in  Time  and 
Place;  2.  Resemblance  and  Contrast;  3.  Cause  and 
Effect. 

1.  Associations  of  this  kind  have  a  relation  to  succes- 
sion of  time  or  place.  When  a  boy  commits  a  column 
of  spelling  to  memory,  he  remembers  the  words  in  the 
order  of  succession,  both  as  to  time  and  place.  To  im- 
press the  words  upon  the  memory,  they  must  be  repeated 
for  a  certain  number  of  times  in  the  order  in  which  they 
are  to  be  remembered.  This  mode  of  exercising  the 
memory  is  excessively  irksome,  and  anything  but  in- 
structive. There  are,  however,  some  local  associations 
which  are  highly  pleasurable  or  painful,  as  the  case  may 
be,  and  which  make  very  deep  impressions  upon  the 
mind.  Thus  we  associate  an  idea  with  the  person  by 
whom  it  was  communicated,  or  with  the  place  where  we 
first  formed  the  conception,  and  the  idea  is  recalled  by 
us  whenever  the  person  or  place  enters  our  thoughts. 
After  long  years  of  travel,  by  land  and  water,  1  visit 
again  my  native  i)lace, — I  wander  along  a  river's  bank, 
— I  look  upon  an  old  beech  tree,  whose  wide-spreading 
branches  afford  a  cool  shade  for  some  children  at  play, 
— memory  waves  her  magic  wand,  recalls  the  past  into 
existence,  and  peoples  the  scene  with  beings  long  since 
dead; — on  that  flowery  bank  sit  my  father  and  mother, 
in  their  holiday  attire, — she  smiles  in  his  face,  as  he 
looks  upon  their  children  at  play  beneath  the  old  beech 
tree, — I  see  them  too, — I  call  them  by  their  names,  and 
they   answer  me;   ah  !   the   vision  fades, — Stay  !  dear 


MEMORY    INFLUENCED    BY   ASSOCIATIONS.  215  j 

loved  ones,  stay  !     Why  will  ye  fly  back  to  the  house  of  ] 

death,  and  leave  me  to  the  desolation  of  my  own  thoughts,  ] 

— to  mourn  over  the  memories  of  the  past?  - 

'•  Mark  yon  old  mansion  frowning  thro'  tlie  trees, 
Wliose  liollow  turret  wooes  the  whistling  breeze. 

That  casement,  arched  with  ivy's  brownest  shade,  ■ 

First  to  these  eyes  the  light  of  heaven  conveyed.  | 

The  mouldering  gateway  strews  the  grass-grown  court,  I 

Once  the  gay  scene  of  many  a  simple  sport ;  i 

When  nature  pleased,  for  life  itself  was  new,  j 

And  the  heart  promised  what  the  fancy  drew.  ! 

See,  thro'  the  fractured  pediment  revealed,  ; 

Where  moss  inlays  the  rudely  sculptured  shield,  : 
The  martui's  old,  hereditary  nest; 

Long  may  the  ruin  spare  its  hallowed  guest!  j 

As  jars  the  hinge,  what  sullen  echoes  call!  i 

Oh,  haste,  unfold  the  hospitable  hall!  " 

That  hall,  where  once,  in  antiquated  state,  i 

The  chair  of  justice  held  the  grave  debate.  \ 

Now  stained  with  dews,  with  cobwebs  darkly  hung,  ' 

Oft  has  its  roof  with  peals  of  rapture  rung ;  1 

When  round  yon  ample  board,  in  due  degree,  \ 
We  sweetened  every  meal  with  social  glee. 
The  heart's  light  laugh  pursued  the  circling  jest. 

And  all  was  sunshine  in  each  little  breast.  < 

! 

'Twas  here  we  chased  the  slipper  by  the  sound,  ■ 

And  turned  the  blindfold  hero  round  and  round.  ■ 

V; 

Ye  Household  Deities!  whose  guardian  eye 
Marked  each  pure  thought,  ere  registered  on  high,  ^ 

Still,  still  ye  walk  the  consecrated  ground, 
And  breathe  the  soul  of  Inspiration  round. 

As  o'er  the  dusky  furniture  I  bend,  j 

Each  chair  awakes  the  feeling  of  a  friend.  j 

The  storied  arras,  source  of  fond  delight,  ; 

With  old  achievement,  charms  the  wildered  sight;  ' 

And  still,  with  Heraldry's  rich  hues  imprest,  •  ^ 

On  the  dim  window  glows  the  pictured  crest,  ■ 

The  screen  unfolds  its  many-colored  chart.  \ 

The  clock  still  points  its  moral  to  the  heart.  ^ 

That  faithful  monitor  'twas  heaven  to  hear,  { 

When  soft  it  spoke  a  promised  pleasure  near;  J 


216  PHILOSOPHY    O^   EDUCATION. 

And  has  its  sober  hand,  its  simple  chime, 

Forgot  to  trace  the  feathered  feet  of  time  ? 

That  massive  beam  with  curious  carvings  wrouglit, 

Whence  the  caged  linnet  soothed  my  pensive  thought; 

Those  muskets  cased  with  venerable  rust; 

Those  once-loved  forms,  still  breathing  thro'  their  dust, 

Starting  to  life— all  whisper  of  the  past." 

How  true  to  nature  is  Byron's  picture  of  tlie  Dying 
Gladiator  ! 

••  I  see  before  me  the  Gladiator  lie; 
He  leans  upon  his  hand,— his  manly  brow 
Consents  to  death,  but  conquers  agony. 
And  his  drooped  head  sinks  gradually  low. 
And  through  his  side  the  last  drops,  ebbing  slow. 
From  the  red  gash,  fall  heavy,  one  by  one. 
Like  the  first  of  a  thunder  shower;  and  now 
The  arena  swims  around  him— he  is  gone, 
Ere  ceased  the  inhuman  shout  which  hailed  the  wretch  who  won. 
He  heard  it,  but  he  heeded  not— his  eyes 
Were  with  his  heart,  and  that  was  faraway; 
He  recked  not  of  the  life  he  lost  nor  prize. 
But  where  his  rude  hut  by  the  Danube  lay, 
Thei'e  were  his  young  barbarians  all  at  play, 
There  was  their  Dacian  mother— he,  their  sire, 
Butchered  to  make  a  Roman  holiday- 
All  this  rushed  with  his  blood— shall  he  expire— 
And  unavenged  ?— Arise,  ye  (lOths,  and  glut  your  ire. " 

In  cultivating  the  memory  of  children,  the  judicious 
teacher  will  not  fail  to  associate  important  ideas  with 
local  scenes  and  events. 

The  order  of  time  and  succession  is  one  of  the  earliest 
principles  of  association;  but  children  should  be  taught 
how  to  employ  higher  principles  of  association;  badly 
educated  people  continue  through  life  to  remember 
things  by  the  mere  association  of  time  and  place;  ideas 
which  have  no  real  or  rational  connection  with  each 
other  remain  in  their  minds  to  the  end  of  existence, 
associated  together.     ()n<'  person  lies  a  string  about  his 


KESEMBLANCE    AND    CONTRAST.  217 

finger,  another  makes  a  knot  in  his  handkerchief,  and 
so  on  to  other  artifices,  in  order  to  remind  them  of 
something  which  they  particularly  wish  to  remember. 
We  scarcely  need  observe  that  the  memory  of  such 
people  has  not  been  properly  cultivated  in  childhood. 

2.  Associations  of  resemblance  are  rarely  so  vivid  as 
those  of  contrast;  and  hence  it  follows  that  scenes  or 
events  which  are  in  contrast  with  each  other  are  more 
likely  to  be  remembered  than  those  which  have  a  re- 
semblance. Contrast,  like  light  and  shadow,  makes 
the  objects  more  prominent;  resemblance  sometimes 
proves  the  greatest  stumbling-block  to  memory.  The 
quiet  beauty  of  the  landscape  is  best  remembered  when 
it  is  associated  with  the  picturesque  majesty  of  the 
rugged  mountain  scenery;  the  playfulness  of  childhood 
most  readily  suggests  to  us  the  gravity  of  age;  and  the 
happy  home  of  peaceful  industry  and  purity  is  most 
readily  associated  in  the  mind  with  the  wretched  dens 
of  idleness  and  profligacy.  Thus,  we  remember  more 
by  contrast  than  by  resemblance.  Men  of  great  moral 
daring  and  adventure  always  have  a  more  vivid  recol- 
lection of  the  events  of  their  existence,  than  those  who 
pass  their  lives  in  peaceful  seclusion.  Our  past  life 
appears  long  or  short,  according  to  the  number  of  events, 
or  according  to  the  number  of  ideas,  which  we  remem- 
ber: old  men  who  remain  much  at  home  find  so  little  to 
remember  in  the  course  of  a  year  of  their  monotonous 
existence,  that  a  day  of  their  youth  really  appears  longer 
to  them  than  a  year  of  their  dotage. 

3.  Although  causes  and  effects  generally  stand  in  the 
relation  of  contiguity  as  to  time  and  place,  yet  there  is 
something  more  than  mere  contiguity  in  the  connection; 


218  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

for  the  constancy  and  dependence  of  the  connection  sub- 
sisting between  a  cause  and  its  effect  give  us  the  idea  of 
a  more  intimate  relation.  The  minds  of  children  are  so 
constituted  that  they  most  readily  remember  effects  in 
connection  with  their  causes:  for  example,  they  readily 
associate  the  light  of  day  with  the  presence  of  the  sun; 
storms,  with  winds  and  clouds;  the  heat  of  summer,  with 
the  long  days  of  sunshine;  the  improvement  of  the  mind, 
with  application  to  study;  misery  with  crime,  and  hap- 
piness with  virtue;  and  so  on.  Associations  of  this  kind 
are  most  interesting  and  instructive;  one  idea  becomes 
the  nucleus  of  a  whole  series,  and  idea  becomes  so  linked 
with  idea  that  we  are  enabled  to  form  a  continuous 
chain  of  them ;  thus,  for  example,  we  readily  remember 
the  following  chain  of  associations:  rain  falls  from  the 
clouds, — the  clouds  are  chiefly  formed  by  winds  and 
mountains, — the  cold  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains  con- 
denses the  moisture  in  the  air,  and  thus  clouds  are 
formed — the  cold  on  the  tops  of  mountains  is  caused  by 
the  thinness  of  the  air,  &c., — thin  air  is  colder  than 
dense  air,  because  it  has  a  greater  capacity  for  heat, — 
and  so  on.  The  phenomena  of  nature,  as  well  as  the 
results  of  science  and  art,  will  be  most  easily  remembered 
when  they  are  associated  with  their  causes.  A  boy  who 
is  acquainted  with  the  physical  geography  of  England 
finds  no  difficulty  in  remembering  the  localities  of  our 
manufactures,  of  our  agriculture,  of  our  shipping  trade. 
In  like  manner,  the  great  events  of  history  are  readily 
remembered  when  they  are  taught  in  connection  with 
their  causes.  AthI  so  on  to  other  subjects  of  clcnuMitary 
instruction. 


7:^\ 


RULES  FOR  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  MEMORY.  219 

Philosophical  Associations. 

Associations  are  called  philosophical  when  a  fact  or  an 

idea  is,  by  a  mental  process,  associated  with  some  fact 

or  idea  previously  known,  to  which  it  has  some  relation. 

The  fact  or  idea  thus  acquired  is  said  to  be  put  by  in  its 

proper  place,  so  that  it  may  be  easily  recalled  to  the 

mind  by  means  of  this  connection  or  association.     The 

habit  of  forming  such  associations  gives  rise  to  what 

we  have  called  the  philosophical  memory.     One  great 

object  of  education,  as  we  have  already  observed,  should 

be  the  cultivation  of  this  kind  of  memory. 

"  Lulled  in  the  countless  chambers  of  the  brain, 
Our  thoughts  are  linked  by  many  a  hidden  chain ; 
Awake  but  one,  and  lo,  what  myriads  rise  ! 
Each  stamps  its  image  as  the  other  flies. 
Each,  as  the  various  avenues  of  sense 
Delight  or  sorrow  to  the  soul  dispense, 
Brightens  or  fades;  yet  all,  with  magic  art, 
Control  the  latent  fibres  of  the  heart." 

These  general  principles  of  association  naturally  sug- 
gest to  us  the  following  practical  rules  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  memory. 

Rules  for  the  Cultivation  of  Memory. 

1.  The  memory  of  child/ren  is  cultivated  hy  leading  them  to 
form  associations  on  natural  and  proper  principles.  Some  of 
these  principles  deserve  special  notice. 

1 .  Facts  or  ideas  should  he  arranged  in  their  order  of  logical 


In  relating  a  story,  for  example,  the  natural  chain  of 
events  should  not  be  broken  by  the  introduction  of  any 
trifling  or  extraneous  matter,  calculated  to  destroy  the 
unity  of  the  subject. 


220  PHILOSOPHY    OP    EDlTCATlO^r. 

2.  Classification  and  generalization  are  great  helps  to  the 
remembrance  of  fads  or  ideas. 

Every  fresh  fact,  or  idea,  sliould  be  put  by  in  its 
proper  place  in  the  mind,  that  is  to  say,  the  new  fact  or 
idea  should  be  associated  with  its  proper  class  of  facts 
or  ideas  already  existing  in  the  mind. 

A  general  principle  gives  the  key  to  the  remembrance 
of  a  whole  series  of  facts  or  events.  Physical  facts  are 
best  remembered  through  a  knowledge  of  their  general 
law;  effects,  through  a  knowledge  of  their  cause;  and 
results,  through  a  knowledge  of  the  general  principles 
upon  which  they  depend. 

A  general  formula,  in  mathematics,  enables  us  to  re- 
member, with  the  utmost  precision,  all  the  particular 
cases  which  it  comprehends.  In  the  subject  of  gram- 
mar, the  general  fact  that  all  nouns  ending  in  y,  when 
preceded  by  a  consonant,  form  their  plural  by  changing 
the  y  into  ies,  very  much  aids  the  memory;  and  so  on  to 
other  general  principles  of  language.  If  a  child  is  told 
that  James  II.  was  cruel,  bigoted,  and  blindly  despotic, 
he  has  got  in  his  mind  a  general  fact  which  will  assist 
hira  in  remembering  the  most  remarkable  events  in  this 
monarch's  reign.  The  best  way  to  n)ake  a  boy  remem- 
ber the  directions  in  which  the  constant  and  periodic 
winds  blow,  is  by  teaching  their  cause.  A  knowledge 
of  the  general  physical  properties  of  a  substance  affords 
the  greatest  aid  to  the  pupil  in  remembering  the  various 
experimental  facts  which  may  be  given  in  relation  to  it; 
thus,  for  example,  a  knowledge  of  the  general  property 
that  acids  combine  with  alkalies  enables  the  pupil  to  re- 
member the  result  of   any   particular   combination  of 


RULES  FOR  THE  CULTIV ACTION  OF  MEMORY.  221 

these  two  classes  of  substances.  These  illustrations 
might  be  indefinitely  extended. 

Teachers,  therefore,  should  constantly  aid  their  pupils 
in  grouping  their  ideas  under  general  heads  or  princi- 
ples. Even  in  the  common  concerns  of  life  this  is  of 
great  utility. 

*'  Betty,"  says  a  farmer's  wife  to  her  servant,  "Betty, 
you  must  go  to  market  for  some  things."  "  Yes,  ma'am." 
"  But,  oh-deary-me  !  you  have  got  such  a  bad  memory 
that  if  you  have  only  three  or  four  things  to  do,  you  are 
sure  to  forget  one  of  them.  Do  try  this  time  to  remem- 
ber what  I  want.  You  have  so  many  good  qualities,  and 
you  are  so  tidy  and  so  good-looking,  that  I  really  do  not 
wish  to  part  with  you,  but  your  forgetfulness  is  insuf- 
ferable." "  Yes,  ma'am, — but  if  my  Maker  has  given 
me  a  bad  memory,  how  can  I  help  it  ?  "  "  Listen  to  me 
— I  want  suet  and  currants  for  the  pudding."  "Yes, 
ma'am,  suet  and  currants  for  the  pudding."  "Leeks 
and  barley  for  the  broth;  don't  forget  them."  "No, 
ma'am,  leeks  and  barley  for  the  broth."  "A  shoulder  of 
mutton,  a  pound  of  tea,  a  pound  of  coffee,  six  pounds  of 
sugar;  be  sure  you  don't  forget  the  sugar,  Betty,  for 
we  have  not  a  bit  in  the  house."  "  Ko,  ma'am,  I  won't 
forget  the  sugar."  "And  mind  you  call  at  the  dress- 
maker's, and  tell  her  to  bring  out  with  her  the  calico  for 
the  lining,  some  black  thread,  and  a  piece  of  narrow 
tape."  "  Yes,  ma'am."  "  Stay,  Betty,  you'd  better  tell 
the  grocer  to  give  us  a  jar  of  black  currant  jam." 

During  this  colloquy  the  honest  farmer  had  been  ap- 
parently engaged  in  making  entries  in  his  farm-book, 
but  in  reality  quietly  and  attentively  observing  what 
had  been  going  on.     He  had  his  own  views  about  Bet- 


222  PHILOSOPHY  of  education. 

ty's  bad  memory;  he  felt,  too,  that  Betty's  confession 
was  no  atonement,  and  most  certainly  gave  no  promise 
of  amendment.  The  fact  is,  the  honest  farmer  had  al- 
most a  father's  love  for  poor  Betty. 

"Come  here,  lass,"  said  he,  "come  here,  and  let  me 
see  if  I  cannot  get  you  to  mind  what  you  are  going  for." 
"Yes,  sir."  "  Now  then,  tell  me  what  you  are  going  to 
bring  from  market."  "  Well,  sir,  there  is  sugar  and  tea, 
a  shoulder  of  mutton,  coffee, — coffee — let  me  see — and 
."  "  My  good  girl,  that  is  not  the  way  of  doing- 
business.  You  must  arrange  your  articles  under  differ- 
ent heads,  as  the  parson  does  his  sermon,  or  you  will 
never  remember  them.  Now  it  appears  to  me  that 
there  are  three  things  to  provide  for:  1st,  Breakfast, 
2d,  Dinner,  3d,  A  Dressmaker. 

"  1st.  What  are  you  going  to  get  for  the  breakfast  ?" 
"  Sugar,  tea,  and  coffee,  and  jam, — which  I  shall  get  at 
the  grocer's." 

"  2d.  What  articles  are  you  to  get  for  the  dinner  ?" 
"  There's  the  butcher's  meat,  the  broth,  and  the  pud- 
ding." "Now,  what  have  you  to  get  for  each  of  them  ?  " 
"  Well,  sir,  the  shoulder  of  mutton,  leeks  and  barley  for 
the  broth,  and  suet  and  currants  for  the  pudding." 
"  Very  good — where  do  you  get  them  ?  "  "  The  mutton 
and  suet  at  the  butcher's;  the  leeks  at  the  gardner's; 
the  barley  and  currants  at  the  grocer's.  "  But  you  had 
something  to  get  at  the  grocer's  for  the  breakfast  ?'» 
"  Yes,  sir,  I  had  sugar,  tea,  coffee,  and  jam,  to  get  for 
the  breakfast,  and  besides  I  have  barley  and  currents  to 
get,— so  that — let  me  see — I  have  altogether  six  things 
to  get  at  the  grocer's."  "  Very  good,  Betty, — you  are 
getting  to  understand  matters.     Now,  when  you  get  to 


UTILITY    OF   GROUPING   IDEAS.  223 

the  grocer's,  fancy  one  part  of  this  counter  your  break- 
fast table,  another  part  of  the  counter  your  dinner  table, 
and  then  run  over  all  the  articles  and  see  that  you  have 
got  them  all  right."  "  Oh  yes,  sir,  that  is  capital;  I  feel 
sure  that  I  shall  not  forget  anything  to-day." 

"  3d.  The  dressmaker.  What  has  she  to  bring  with 
her  to-morrow?"  "The  calico,  the  thread,  and  the 
tape."  **  Now  go,  Betty,  and  remember  that  I  feel  much 
interested  in  your  success." 

"  Well,  Betty,"  says  her  mistress,  "you  have  got  back." 
"Yes,  ma'am."  "But  have  you  brought  all  the  things 
right  ? — let  me  see, — sugar,  tea,  coffee,  barley,  .  .  .  .  ; 
well-a-day!  if  you  have  not  brought  everything  right 
this  time."  "  Betty,"  says  her  master,  "  I  am  glad  to 
see  that  you  are  an  apt  scholar;  and  I  do  believe  that  if 
you  would  always  try  to  disentangle  things,' in  the  way 
we  have  done  to-day,  you  might,  by  and  by,  rival  the 
schoolmaster  for  memory,  and  the  people  say  that  he 
can  repeat  the  catechism  backwards."  "  Yes,  sir;  I  am 
certainly  much  obliged  to  you,  and  I  shall  always  try  to 
follow  out  what  you  have  shown  me  to-day."  "  Remem- 
ber also  never  to  blame  your  Maker  for  faults  which  are 
due  to  your  own  negligence:  be  good,  and  endeavor  in 
all  things  to  improve  the  talents  that  He  has  given  you, 
and  I  should  not  be  at  all  surprised  if  you  render  your- 
self fit  for  becoming  a  farmer's  wife." 

3.  Reasoning  is  one  of  the  best  helps  to  memory. 

Results  should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  associated  with 
the  processes  of  reasoning  by  which  they  are  derived 
This  is  especially  applicable  to  all  mathematical  subjects. 
Many  students  find  a  greater  difficulty  in  remembering 
results  than  in  remembering  the  steps  of  reasoning  by 


224  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

which  these  results  are  established.  Such  persons  will 
say  to  you, — "  I  do  not  remember  the  formula  exactly, 
but  I  remember  the  way  in  which  it  is  got,  and  that  to 
me  is  far  more  valuable." 

One  of  the  greatest  drudgeries,  in  the  form  of  tasks, 
is  committing  arithmetical  tables  to  memory.  But  even 
here,  if  the  memory  is  aided  by  reasoning,  the  drudgery 
of  the  task  is  very  much  lessened.  Thus,  for  instance, 
in  learning  the  multiplication  table,  the  child  should  be 
shown  how  to  derive  the  successive  results  of  the  table, 
after  the  manner  described  in  Tate*s  Principles  of  Arith- 
metic. 

The  ideas,  rather  than  the  words,  of  an  author,  should 
be  remembered.  The  passage  which  we  wish  to  remem- 
ber should  be  analyzed,  and  the  essential  ideas  separated 
from  the  non-essential.  In  order  to  show  that  ideas, 
not  words,  are  the  great  things  to  be  remembered,  the 
teacher  should  explain  to  his  pupils  how  the  same  ideas 
may  be  expressed  in  different  forms  of  language.  Prob- 
lems in  arithmetic  afford  excellent  illustrations  of  this: 
let  us  suppose  the  following  question  to  be  proposed  by 
a  master  to  his  pupils: — 

Question.  A  draper  paid  eight  pounds  ten  shillings 
for  six  pieces  of  line  linen,  containing  eighty  yards;  how 
much  should  he  pay  for  twenty-five  yards  of  the  same 
kind  of  linen  ? 

Or  thus  in  other  words: — 

Question.  How  much  should  a  draper  pay  for  twenty- 
five  yards  of  fine  linen,  allowing  that  he  had  paid  eight 
pounds  ten  shillings  for  eighty  yards  of  it  ? 

"  Here,"  (we  may  suppose  the  master  to  say  to  his 
pupils),  "  we  must  first  write  down  an  abstract  of  the 


RESEMBLANCE    AND    CONTKAST.  225 

data,  or  things  given,  necessary  for  solving  tlie  question, 
or,  in  otlier  words,  we  must  separate  the  essential  data 
from  the  non-essential.  Now  the  number  of  pieces  is 
not  necessary  for  the  solution  of  the  question,  because 
the  measure  of  the  whole  is  given,  and  the  cost  required 
is  for  a  certain  number  of  yards,  without  any  regard  to 
the  number  of  pieces.  The  essential  data  of  the  question 
are  as  follows: — 

"The  cost  of  80  yards  is  8^.  and  10«.;  the  cost  of  25 
yards  is  required.  Having  made  this  abstract  of  the 
question,  we  may  now  go  on  with  the  solution,"  &c. 

4.  Associations  of  resemblance  and  contrast  are  great  helps  to 
the  memory. 

This  principle  of  association  may  be  used  with  ad- 
vantage in  almost  every  branch  of  instruction.  In  geog- 
raphy, the  pupil  should  contrast  different  regions  of  the 
globe  with  each  other,  or,  it  may  be,  trace  their  various 
prominent  points  of  resemblance  as  to  form,  climate, 
population,  &c.  The  same  course  should  be  pursued 
in  history,  divinity,  arithmetic,  chemistry,  and  other 
branches  of  natural  philosophy,  &c.  The  teacher  should 
classify,  for  the  use  of  his  pupils,  the  subjects  which  are 
most  eligible  for  being  viewed  in  contrast  or  resemblance, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  following  brief  forms  of 
classification  will  sufficiently  indicate  the  nature  of  the 
method  proposed. 

Geography. 

Subjects  of  contrast.  The  old  world  and  the  new  world;* 
the  two  hemispheres;*  the  frigid  and  torrid  zones — 
climate,  vegetable  productions,  &c. ;  Russia  and  Switzer- 

*  The  subjects  marked  thus  are  eligible  for  comparison  as  well  as 
contrast. 


226  PHILOSOPHY    OP   EDUCATION. 

land;  Spain  and  England;  the  Andes  and  the  Cheviots; 
the  Amazon  and  the  Thames;  London  and  Paris;* 
Lancashire  and  Devonshire;  eastern  and  western  coasts 
of  continents;  temperature  of  the  land  and  temperature 
of  the  ocean ;  inundations  of  Siberian  rivers  with  inun- 
dations of  tropical  rivers;  the  Hindoos  and  the  Russians; 
the  Llanos  of  South  America  in  the  dry  and  the  wet 
season;  the  climate  of  New  South  Wales  with  the 
climate  of  Canada;  the  rains  of  the  torrid  with  those  of 
the  temperate  zone;  the  Esquimaux  with  the  Patagon- 
ians;  Quito  with  the  Steppes  of  Astrakhan  in  Southern 
Russia;  the  Highlands  and  Lowlands  of  Scotland;  the 
Valley  of  the  Mississippi  with  the  Desert  of  Sahara;  the 
rivers  of  eastern  with  the  rivers  of  western  America; 
Cornwall  and  the  district  around  the  Wash;  &c. 

Subjects  of  resemblance  and  comparison.  Spain  and  Italy; 
France  and  England;  the  Thames  and  the  Seine;  Man- 
chester and  Lyons;  Paris  and  Edinburgh;  Glasgow  and 
Manchester;  Edinburgh  and  Dublin;  Great  Britain  and 
Vancouver  Island;  Great  Britain  and  New  Zealand;* 
the  Islands  of  Ceylon  and  Madagascar;  the  gold  fields 
of  Australia  with  those  of  California;  the  water-shed 
between  the  basins  of  Hudson's  Bay  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  with  the  water-shed  between  the  basis  of  the 
Baltic  and  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas;  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez  with  the  Isthmus  of  Panama;  Milford  Haven  and 
the  Moray  Firth;  the  Vale  of  Exe  and  the  Vale  of 
Eden;  the  Paris  basin  with  the  London  basin;  the  coast 
of  Norfolk  with  the  opposite  coast  of  Holland;  Hull  and 
Liverpool  as  seaports;  the  exports  of  Russia  with  the 
exports  of  Canada;  the  currents  of  the  South  Atlantic 
with  those  of  the  North  Atlantic;  tfcc. 


KESEMBLANCE    AND    CONTRAST.  227 

History. 

Subjects  of  contrast.  Alfred  the  Great  and  Charles  II. ; 
Cromwell  and  Charles  I.;  Mary  and  Victoria;  Elizabeth 
and  Mary  of  Scotland;  Henry  VIII.  and  John;  the  14th 
century  and  the  19th;  Cranmer  and  John  Knox;  Jeffries 
and  Hale ;  Watt  and  Napoleon ;  &c. 

Subjects  of  resemblance.     William    I.    and   Edward   I. 
Charles  I.  and  James  II.;  Henry  III.  and  Edward  lit. 
Cromwell  and  Napoleon;  Marlborough  and  Wellington 
Richard  I.  and  Edward  VI.;  William  III.  and  Richard 
III.;  Wolsey  and  Thomas  a  Becket;  Bacon  and  New- 
ton; Blake  and  Nelson;  Captain  Cook  and  Columbus;  ifce. 

The  Scriptures. 

Subjects  of  contrast.  Adam  and  Christ;  Cain  and  Abel; 
Esau  and  Jacob;  David  and  Solomon;  Joshua  and 
Samuel;  Paul  and  John;  Paul  and  Balaam;  Matthew 
and  Luke;  Enoch  and  Judas  Iscariot;  Joseph  and  Moses; 
Samson  and  Gideon;*  Judaism  and  Christianity;*  &c. 

Subjects  of  resemblance.  Moses  and  Christ;*  Samson 
and  David;  Noah  and  Lot;  Elijah  and  Elisha;  Paul's 
conversion  given  in  Acts,  9th  chap.,  and  in  Acts,  26th 
chap. ;  Death  of  Christ  as  given  by  the  four  Evangel- 
ists; &c. 

Mathematical  Geography  and  Astronomy, 

Subjects  of  contrast.  Surface  of  the  earth  and  a  known 
portion  of  it;  latitude  and  longitude;  summer  and  win- 
ter; Jupiter  and  the  Earth;  the  sun  and  the  planets; 
distance  of  Neptune  and  the  distance  of  the  moon ;  dis- 
tance of  Neptune  and  the  distance  of  the  nearest  fixed 
stars;  the  sun  and  the  moon;  &c. 


228  PHILOSOPHY    OP   EDUCATION. 

Subjects  of  Comparison.  Comparative  magnitudes  of  the 
planets;  approximate  numbers  representing  tlie  relative 
distances  of  the  ])lanets  from  the  sun;  &c. 

Properties  of  Bodies. 

Properties  in  contrast.  Long  and  sliort,  round  and  an- 
gular, &c.;  hard  and  soft;  fluid  and  solid;  transparent 
and  opaque;  elastic  and  non-elastic;  black  and  white; 
nutritive  and  poisonous;  &c. 

Properties  in  resemblance  or  comparison.  Resemblances  'of 
form;  degrees  of  hardness  or  softness;  more  or  less 
transparent;  resemblances  of  color;  more  or  less  elastic; 
more  or  less  nutritive;  &c. 

Experimental  Science. 

Subjects  of  contrast.  Acids  and  alkalies;  oxygen  and 
hydrogen,*  &c.;  north  and  south  poles  of  a  magnet;* 
positive  and  negative  electricity;*  reflection  and  refrac- 
tion; conduction  and  radiation;  &c. 

Subjects  of  resemblance.  Chlorine  and  sulphur;*  nitro- 
gen and  carbonic  acid;*  light  and  heat;  ebullition  and 
evaporation;  dew  and  fog;  electricity  and  magnetism; 
&c. 

Arithmetic  and  Mathematics. 

In  no  subject  is  the  memory  more  aided  by  resem- 
blances and  contrasts  than  in  that  of  mathematics. 
Subtraction  is  the  reverse  of  addition;  division  is  the 
reverse  of  multiplication;  and  the  processes  of  Rule  of 
Three  may  be  regarded  as  combinations  of  the  four  ele- 
mentary operations  of  numbers.  The  analogies  of  the 
cylinder,  cone,  and  sphere,  are  too  obvious  to  escape 


RESEMBLANCE   AND   CONTRAST.  229 

notice:  the  pupil  who  has  been  shown  how  to  derive  the 
surface  of  the  sphere  from  that  of  the  cylinder  will 
never  forget  those  rules  of  mensuration  treating  of  these 
three  solids. 

The  Alphabet. 

The  dissimilar  letters  of  the  alphabet  should  be  taught 
to  children  before  those  that  are  similar;  for,  as  we  have 
already  shown,  resemblances,  in  such  cases,  confound 
the  memory  of  children.  The  child  should  be  taught 
the  Egyptian  characters  first,  on  account  of  their  being 
the  most  simple  form  of  the  letters;  and  the  master 
should  draw  them  on  a  bold  scale  with  chalk  upon  the 
blackboard,  while  he  is  giving  his  lesson. 

In  order  to  interest  the  children,  and  help  them  to 
form  familiar  associations,  graphic  names  may  be  given 
to  the  different  letters,  descriptive  of  their  peculiar 
forms.  Thus,  Q  ™^y  be  called  the  round  0>  D  half 
the  round  Oj  S  ^  pot-hook;  J  a  walking-stick;  [J  a 
horse-shoe;  B  crooky-back;  V  ^  fool's  cap  upside  down; 
A  a  fool's  cap  with  a  bar  through  it;  |  a  blind  stroke; 
H  two  blind  strokes  with  a  bar  between  them;  &g. 

While  comparing  the  forms  of  different  letters  with 
each  other,  the  teacher  will  very  much  aid  the  memory 
of  the  children  by  showing  them  how  one  letter  may  be 
converted  into  another;  thus,  p  is  readily  converted 
into  B>  ^^  ^"to  R;  C  ii^to  an  0>  ^"^  ^^^n  Q  i"to  Q> 
I  into  L,  or  into  X>  I  into  P,  and  then  p  into  E>  ^"<i 
so  on. 

The  Spelling  and  Meaning  of  Words. 

The  spelling  of  words  together  which  have  nearly  the 
same  sound,  but  are  differently  spelt,  such  as  of  and  offy 


230  PHILOSOPHY   OF    EDUCATION. 

were  and  where,  &c.,  is  a  bad  plan,  on  account  of  the  re- 
semblance of  the  words;  and  the  method  of  teacliing 
spelling  by  columns  of  words  alphabetically  arranged  is 
equally  objectionable.  The  niceties  of  spelling  and 
meaning  should  belong  to  a  higher  stage  of  instruction. 
Words  in  contrast  having  the  same  radical  part  are 
easily  remembered;  thus  we  have 

Words  in  contrast.  Agree  and  disagree;  join  and  dis- 
join; temperate  and  intemperate;  humanity  and  inhu- 
manity; thankful  and  unthankful;  kindness  and  unkind- 
ness;  &c. 

The  following  illustrations  of  the  method  of  instruc- 
tion here  proposed  will  no  doubt  be  acceptable  to  many 
of  our  readers. 

Illustrations. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  CONTRASTS  AND  RESEMBLANCES. 
\.  The  Old  and  New  World. 

Contrasts. 
The  Old  World.  The  New  World. 

History  ancient.  History  modern. 

The  principal  mass,  of  the  Old  The  New  World  extends  from 

World,  Asia  and  Enrope,  extends  North  to  South,  over  two-fifths  of 

from  East  to  West,  over  one-half  of  the  circumference  of  the  globe, 
the  circumference  of  the  globe. 

The  mountain  ranges  run  from  The  mountain  ranges  run  from 

East  to  West.  North  to  South. 

Asia  — Europe  — lies  within  the  America   comprehends   all   cli- 

torrid,  north  temperate,  and  north  matic  zones,  and  hence  presents  a 

frigid  zones.  greater  variety  of  phenomena. 

Mountain  ranges  somewhat  cen-  The  mountain  range  extends  like 

tral.  a  band  along  the  western  border. 

Rivers  of  Europe  small.  (ireat  water  basins.    Rivers  and 

Lakes  very  large. 

Traversed  by  different  mountain  One  mountain  chain,  the  Andes 

chains.  and  Rocky  Mountains. 

Vast  table  lands  or  plateaus.  The  Vast   plains  which    form  two- 
mountains  and   plateaus  of  Asia  thirds  of  its  surface, 
cover  five-sevenths  of  its  surface. 


GEOGKA.PHICAL  CONTEASTS  AND  RESEMBLANCES.      231 


Volcanoes  on  the  Continent. 
Coast-line  of  Europe  very  much 
indented. 

Inhabitants  white,  dark,  black, 
&c. 

Animals.  Lion,  Tiger,  Leopard, 
Elephant,  Giraffe,  Cow,  Crocodile, 
Nightingale,  &c. 


Great  volcanoes  on  the  islands. 

Coast-line  not  so  much  indented 
as  Europe,  but  more  indented  than 
Asia  or  Africa. 

Native  inhabitants  chiefly  red 
men. 

Animals.  American  Lion.Jaguar, 
Panther,  Grizzly  Bear,  Buffalo,  Al- 
ligator, Mocking  Bird,  &c. 


Resemblances. 


Land  in  two  great  masses.Europe 
and  Africa  in  the  West,  and  Asia 
In  the  East. 

Isthmus  of  Suez  connects  Africa 
with  Europe  and  Asia. 

The  coast-line  of  Europe  is  more 
broken  or  indented  than  that  of 
Asia,  and  still  more  than  that  of 
Africa. 

Europe  better  adapted  for  human 
societies  than  Asia  or  Africa. 

Europe  1  mile  of  coast  to  150  of 
surface ;  Africa  1  mile  of  coast  to 
620  of  surface;  Asia  1  mile  of  coast 
to  480  of  surface. 

The  direction  of  the  land  corre- 
sponds with  the  general  direction 
of  the  mountain  masses. 

The  southern  extremity  termi- 
nates in  a  point  directed  towards 
the  Southern  Ocean,  while  they  go 
widening  towards  the  North. 

The  peninsulas  have  nearly  all 
the  same  direction. 

The  highest  mountain  in  the 
Himalaya  is  a  little  more  than  5 
miles  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 


Land  in  two  great  masses,  North 
and  South  America. 

Isthmus  of  Panama  connects 
North  with  South  America. 

The  coast-line  of  North  America 
is  more  broken  or  indented  than 
that  of  South  America. 

North  Americaa  better  adapted 
for  human  societies  than  South 
America. 

North  America  1  mile  of  coast  to 
230  of  surface;  South  America  1 
mile  of  coast  to  380 of  surface. 

The  same  as  in  the  Old  World. 


The  same  as  in  the  Old  World. 


The  same  as  in  the  Old  World. 

The  highest  mountain  in  the  An- 
des is  nearly  five  miles  above  the 
level  of  the  sea. 


2.  Europe  and  Asia. 

Contrasts. 
Europe.  Asia. 

In  the  highest  condition  of  civili-  The  cradle  of  civilization    but 

zation  and  progress.  now  chiefly  sunk  in  ignorance  and 

superstition. 


232 


PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 


Reli{i;ion  chiefly  Christianity. 

Contour  most  varied,  but  its  pe- 
nlnsuhis  are  not  large.  Indenta- 
tions in  all  parts,  by  the  ocean  and 
by  inland  seas;  thereby  enjoys  1 
mile  of  coast  for  every  150  square 
miles  of  surface. 

The  inland  seas,  and  the  ocean 
lying  between  the  indentations, 
form  nearly  one  half  of  its  surface. 

Open  to  inland  navigation. 
Lies  between  the  other  portions 
of  the  Old  World  and  America. 
Best  adapted  for  human  societies. 

Its  physical  features  are  highly 
diversified. 

Brolien  in  relief  by  mountains 
and  valleys.  The  highest  moun- 
tains do  not  exceed  3  miles  in 
lieight.  Extensive  plains  fresh 
with  vegetation. 

Its  numerous  i)eninsulas  form 
about  one-third  of  its  surface. 

Like  a  perfect  tree,  with  numer- 
ous spreading  branches,  clothed 
with  luxuriant  foliage. 

Itivers  numerous,  but  not  large. 

Climate  chiefly  temperate.Winds 
and  rains  variable. 


All  the  vegetables  essential  to 
life  grow  in  almost  every  portion. 

Wild  animals  are  not  numerous. 

Domesticated  animals  very  nu- 
merous. 

Neither  flowers  nor  birds  have 
much  variety  or  brilliancy  of  color; 
but  the  flowers  refresh  us  with  their 
scent,  and  the  birds  delight  us 
with  their  song. 

Kich  in  minerals. 


Keligion  chiefly  Mahometanism 
and  idol-worship. 

Contour  more  uniform.  Has  vast 
peninsulas  on  its  eastern  and 
southern  coasts,  but  the  indenta- 
tions of  the  coast-line  are  not  so 
numerous;  it  in  consciiuence  only 
possesses  1  mile  of  coast  for  every 
460  S(iuare  miles  of  surface. 

In  spite  of  the  depth  of  the  inden- 
tations, there  remains  a  great  pre- 
ponderating mass  of  unbroken  laud 
towards  the  centre. 

Open  only  at  its  margins. 

Farthest  removed  from  the  New 
World. 

Vast  portions  scarcely  accessible 
to  commerce. 

All  its  physical  features  are  on  a 
gigantic  scale. 

Great  mountains  nearly  double 
the  height  of  those  in  Europe. 
Vast  plateaus  and  deserts. 


Its  vast  peninsulas  only  form 
one-flfth  of  its  surface. 

Like  a  vast  trunk,  with  a  few 
large  branches,  with  a  scanty  foli- 
age. 

Rivers  large,  but  not  numerous. 

Burning  heals  in  its  e<iuatorial 
portions,  and  extremes  of  cold  in 
its  northern  portions  Subject  to 
tropical  winds  and  rains. 

Exuberant  vegetation  In  its  trop- 
ical portions,  and  sterility  in  the 
frozen  tracts  of  Siberia. 

Wild  animals  exceedingly  nu- 
merous. 

Domesticated  animals  not  nu- 
merous. 

In  the  tropical  regions,  the  flow- 
ers and  birds  have  the  most  bril- 
liant colors:  but  the  flowers  have 
little  scent,  and  the  birds  have  no 
song. 

Poor  in  minerals. 


HISTORICAL  CONTRASTS  AND  RESEMBLANCES. 


233 


3.  England  and  Spain. 


Contrasts. 


England. 

Forms  the  greater  portion  of  an 
island. 

For  the  most  part  level,  yet 
beautifully  diversified  with  hills, 
valleys,  and  plains. 

The  elevation  of  the  highest 
mountain,  Scaw  Fell,  in  Cumber- 
land, is  only  a  little  more  than  half 
a  mile. 

The  rivers  are  numerous,  and 
many  of  them  are  navigable  for  a 
considerable  distance  into  the  in- 
terior. 

The  climate  is  damp  and  change- 
able. 

Grows  all  kinds  of  grain,  &c.,  but 
the  climate  is  too  cold  for  the  vine. 

Rich  in  coal,  and  also  in  iron, 
copper,  and  lead  ores. 

The  religion  is  Protestantism. 

Has  advanced  very  rapidly  since 
the  Reformation. 

The  population  of  the  capital  is 
upwards  of  four  millions. 

The  work-shop  of  the  world.  A 
land  of  steam-engines,  railways, 
and  manufactures. 

The  greatest  country  In  the 
world. 

Possesses  the  most  perfect  polit- 
ical institutions. 

The  people  are  pious,  industri- 
ous, generous,  and  brave. 

Its  colonies  flourish  in  every  part 
of  the  globe. 

Stands  foremost  in  the  ranks  of 
modern  science  and  art. 

Famed  for  her  philosophers, 
poets,  statesmen,  and  heroes. 

The  greatest  maritime  power  in 
the  world's  history. 


Spain. 

Forms  the  chief  portion  of  a  pe- 
ninsula. 

Mountainous;  a  considerable 
portion  forms  a  plateau. 

The  elevation  of  th  •  highest 
point  of  the  Pyrenees  is  abou  2^/4 
miles. 

The  rivers  are  not  numerous.and 
none  of  them  can  be  said  to  be 
navigable. 

The  climate  is  generally  warm 
and  salubrious. 

Fine  agricultural  country.  Crows 
grapes  and  oranges. 

No  coal. 

The  religion  is  Romanism. 

Has  retrograded  since  the  period 
of  the  Reformation. 

The  population  of  Madrid,  the 
capital,  is  only  one  eleventh  that 
of  London. 

Cannot  supply  its  own  people 
with  manufactured  goods. 

One  of  the  most  contemptible 
states  in  civilized  Europe. 

A  prey  to  civil  discords;— no 
protection  to  life  or  property. 

The  people  are  bigoted,  indolent, 
treacherous,  and  base. 

Its  colonies  are  dismembered  and 
enfeebled. 

Has  done  nothing  to  advance 
humanity. 

Possesses  no  name  associated 
with  greatness. 

Her  ships  are  barely  sufficient  for 
her  own  limited  commerce. 


234 


PHILOSOPHY    OP   EDUCATION. 


HISTORICAL  CONTRASTS  AND  RESEMBLANCES. 
1.    Alfred  the  Great  and  Charles  II. 


Contrasts. 


Alfred  the  Great. 


Charles  II. 


The  glory  of  his  country.  Amid 
dangers  and  toil,  devoted  himself 
to  Ills  country. 

The  saviour  of  his  country. 

Established  just  and  merciful 
laws. 

A  true  patriot.  Laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  future  greatness  of  his 
country;  said  that  "The  English 
ought  to  be  as  free  as  their  own 
thoughts." 

Rewarded  his  friends  and  concil- 
iated his  enemies.  Temperate, 
frugal,  studious,  prudent  and  pious. 
Burnt  the  calces  when  thinking  of 
his  country.  Divided  his  time. 
Converted  his  enemies  to  Christi- 
anity. 

Beloved  and  revered  during  his 
life,  and  almost  idolized  after  his 
death. 


A  disgrace  to  humanity.  After 
much  bloodshed,  he  became  king, 
and  then  devoted  his  country  to 
himself. 

Sold  his  country  to  France. 

Violated  the  rights  and  privileges 
of  his  people. 

Cared  only  for  having  tlie  name 
and  privilege  of  a  king.  Content  If 
the  natloo  would  only  last  his  time 


Ungrateful  to  his  friends,  and 
heedless  of  his  enemies.  Sensual, 
extravagant,  Idle,  thoughtless  and 
profuse. 


Hated  and  despised  during  his  ] 
life,  and  at  his  death  the  dogs  were  | 
permitted  to  lick  his  blood.  i 


2.  Mary  and  Victoria. 


I\I:iry. 

Desi)()ti(t  and  cruel,    iiigoted  and 
intolerant.    Morose  and  miserable. 
A  blind  Romanist. 
Died  childless. 

A  friend  of  Ignorance  and  super- 
stition. 

Lived  in  an  age  of  darkness  and 
Ignorance. 

An  {vge  of  thumbscrews,  racks, 
and  other  Instruments  of  torture. 


Contrasts. 

Victoria. 

Liberal  and  benevolent.  I'lous 
and  tolerant.    Cheerful  and  happy. 

An  enlightened  Protestant. 

Lives  the  mother  of  a  large  fam- 
ily. 

A  promoter  of  education  and  re- 
ligion. 

Lives  In  an  age  of  knowledge  and 
progress. 

An  age  of  science,  of  steam  en- 
gines, and  of  all  the  arts  which  add 
to  lunnan  happiness. 


SCRIPTURE  CONTRASTS  AND  RESEMBLANCES. 


235 


SCRIPTURE  CONTRASTS  AND  RESEMBLANCES. 

1.  CAIN  AND  Abel. 

Contrasts. 


Cain. 

Cain  was  the  first  born.  A  tiller 
of  the  ground. 

Was  wicked. 

Offered  to  God  the  fruit  of  the 
ground. 

His  offerings  were  not  accepted 
by  God. 

Slew  his  brotlier. 

The  first  murderer.     Branded 
with  God's  curse. 
Cain  became  a  vagabond. 

Cain  had  Children. 


Abel. 

Abel  was  the  first  that  died.  A 
keeper  of  sheep. 

Was  religious. 

Offered  to  God  the  firstlings  of 
his  flocks. 

His  offerings  were  accepted  by 
God. 

The  voice  of  his  blood  cried  unto 
the  Lord  from  the  ground. 

Enjoyed  God's  favor. 

Abel  died  in  the  hope  of  salva- 
tion. 
Abel  died  childless. 


2.  MosKS  AND  Christ. 
Besemhlances. 


Moses. 


Delivered  the  Israelites  from  the 
bondage  of  the  Egyptians. 

The  founder  of  the  ceremonial 
dispensation.  The  founder  of  Ju- 
daism. 

Delivered  to  man  the  ten  com- 
mandments. 

Led  the  Israelites  through  the 
wilderness. 

Moses  lifted  up  the  brazen  ser- 
pent In  the  wilderness,  so  that 
those  who  looked  upon  It  might  be 
healed  of  the  bites  of  the  fiery  ser- 
pents. 

Moses  conducted  the  Israelites 
towards  the  land  of  Canaan,  the 
promised  land  flowing  with  milk 
and  honey. 


Christ. 


Delivered  us  from  the  bondage  of 
sin. 

The  founder  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment dispensation.  The  founder  of 
Christianity. 

Gave  to  man  the  law  of  faith. 

Said  to  his  followers,  "Lo,  I  am 
with  you,  even  unto  the  end  of  the 
world." 

Christ  offered  up  Himself  upon 
the  cross  as  a  sacrifice  for  the  sins 
of  man ,  so  that  those  who  look  upon 
Him  may  be  healed  of  the  leprosy 
of  sin  and  corruption. 

Christ  leads  His  people  to  the 
heavenly  Canaan, 


236 


PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 


3.  Adam  and  Christ. 

Contrasts. 


Adam, 
Adam  was  created. 


Christ. 


ThrouKh  Adam  we  lost  a  terres- 
trial paradise. 
Adam  brolce  tlie  law. 

By  Adam's  sin,  death  came  into 
the  world— death  temporal  as  well 
as  spiritual. 

In  Adam  all  die. 

Through  Adam  sin  came  into  the 
world. 

Through  Adam  man  was  ren- 
dered liable  to  God's  wrath  and 
curse. 

Through  Adam  we  arc  the  ser- 
vants of  the  devil. 

Through  Adam  disease  and  pain 
entered  the  world. 


Adam,  as  the  first  man,  is  our 
natural  father. 

Adam's  death  was  not  propitia- 
tory, for  he  suffered  death  on  ac- 
count of  his  own  sin. 

Through  Adam  we  are  called  up- 
on to  fulfill  the  works  of  the  law. 


Christ,  as  the  Son  of  God,  existed 
from  all  Eternity,  and  was  the  Cre- 
ator of  all  things. 

Through  Christ  we  shall  gain  a 
celestial  paradise. 

Christ  fulfilled  the  law  and  made 
it  honorable. 

By  the  death  of  Christ,  we  shall 
be  restored  to  life. 

In  Christ  all  shall  be  made  alive. 

Through  Christ  we  shall  be 
clothed  with  righteousness. 

Through  Christ  man  is  restored 
to  God's  favor. 

Through  Christ  we  become  the 
servants  of  God. 

Through  His  stripes  we  are 
healed.  He  has  a  fellow-feeling  in 
all  our  pains,  and  pleads  our  cause 
at  God's  right  hand. 

Christ  is  the  spiritual  father  of 
all  those  who  trust  in  Tlim. 

Christ's  death  was  an  atonement 
for  the  sins  of  the  world,  for  He 
had  no  sin,  neither  was  guile 
found  in  His  mouth. 

Through  Christ  salvation  conies 
by  faith  and  not  by  works. 


5.  To  improve  the  memory  we  should  associate  important  ideas 
with  things.,  scenes.,  and  events.  We  should  give  graphic  pictures 
of  important  scenes  anil  events. 

Maps,  useful  and  scientific  pictures,  scripture  texts, 
and  important  school  rules,  should  be  hung  in  the 
school-room.  These  objects,  being  kept  before  the  eye^ 
suggest  important  trains  of  association.     After  a  time 


ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS  WITH  EVENTS,  ETC.  237 

such  things,  no  doubt,  fail  to  arrest  the  attention;  but, 
in  order  to  avoid  this  consequence,  they  should  be 
removed  at  stated  periods,  and  fresh  ones  put  in  their 
place,  or  they  may  simply  be  taken  away  tor  a  time  and 
then  replaced.  The  teacher  will  at  once  sec  the  value 
of  having  such  rules  as  the  following  hung  up  in  the 
school-room: — 1.  A  suitable  place  for  everything,  and 
everything  in  its  place;  2.  A])roper  time  for  everything, 
and  everything  in  its  time;  3.  A  distinct  name  for  every- 
thing, and  everthing  called  by  its  name;  4.  A  certain 
use  for  everything,  and  everything  put  to  its  use;  5.  Try 
to  improve  at  school  every  day;  6.  Guard  against  vul- 
gar language ;  7.  Pray  daily  to  God,  and  praise  His 
holy  name.  The  rules  put  up  by  the  master  should 
always  have  a  relation  to  the  existing  circumstances: 
thus,  for  example,  during  the  fruit  season  the  following 
would  be  highly  appropriate — '*  Never  eat  sour  or  un- 
ripe fruit." 

Teachers  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  with  the 
fact  that  our  school-day  associations  exist  in  the  mind 
to  the  latest  period  of  our  existence. 

"  The  School's  lone  porch,  with  reverend  mosses  grey, 
Just  tells  the  pensive  pilgrim  where  it  lay. 
Mute  is  the  bell  that  rung  at  peep  of  dawn. 
Quickening  my  truant  feet  across  the  lawn; 
Unheard  the  shout  that  rent  the  noontide  air, 
When  the  slow  dial  gave  a  pause  to  care. 
Up  springs,  at  every  step,  to  claim  a  tear. 
Some  little  friendship  formed  and  cherished  iicre; 
And  not  the  lightest  leaf,  but  trembling  teen)s 
With  golden  visions  and  romantic  dreams  !  " 

Geography  should  be  taught  in  connection  with  his- 
tory. No  teacher  should  give  a  lesson  on  the  geography 
of  a  country  without  associating  the  leading  geographi- 


238  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

cal  facts  with  the  most  remarkable  events  of  its  history, 
or  with  its  existing  resources  of  trade  and  wealth.  He 
should  also  introduce  historical  and  picturesque  de- 
scriptions of  the  great  cities  of  the  country  of  which  he 
treats.  Great  cities  constitute  the  identity  of  a  people; 
— their  past  history  is  sculptured  on  their  monuments, 
churches,  and  public  buildings; — their  existing  industry, 
and  real  sources  of  wealth  and  power,  are  exhibited  in 
their  machinery,  their  factories,  their  shipping,  and  their 
market-places  or  thoroughfares,  where  the  products  of 
nature  and  art  are  bought  and  sold; — their  intellectual, 
moral  and  political  tendencies  may  be  seen  in  the  tastes, 
habits,  and  pursuits  of  the  people  that  crowd  their  pub- 
lic rendezvous;  for  the  ceaseless  struggles  of  opinions, 
passions,  and  interests  which  here  manifest  themselves, 
may  be  regarded  as  the  throbbings  of  the  great  heart  of 
society,  which  extend  themselves,  as  certainly  as  by  the 
action  of  an  hydraulic  law,  to  the  utmost  extremities  of 
the  living  mass. 

The  events  of  scripture  history  should  be  taught  in 
connection  with  the  map  of  Palestine.  In  like  manner, 
history  should  be  taught  in  connection  with  geography. 
Local  associations  give  vividness  and  power  to  the  re- 
membrance of  events. 

"  And  hence  the  cliarm  historic  scenes  Impart; 
Hence  Tiber  awes,  and  Avon  melts  the  heart." 

A  man  who  has  looked  upon  the  field  of  Bannockburn, 
where  the  devoted  band  of  Scottish  patriots  withstood 
the  onslaught  of  the  mighty  host  of  their  oppressor,  will 
never  forget  the  historical  events  connected  with  the 
battle.  "  That  man,"  says  Johnson,  "  is  little  to  be  en- 
vied, whose  patriotism  would  not  gain  force  upon  the 


GEOGRAPHY  SHOULD  BE  ILLUSTRATED  BY  HISTORY.       239 

plain  of  Marathon,  or  whose  piety  would  not  grow 
warmer  among:  the  ruins  of  lona."  Who  can  look  on 
the  statue  of  Henri  IV.,  standing  on  Pont-Neuf,  which 
crosses  the  Seine  in  the  heart  of  Paris,  without  having 
the  remarkable  events  of  this  chivalrous  monarch's. life 
more  deeply  impressed  upon  his  memory  ?  The  birth- 
places or  the  sepulchres  of  great  men  form  some  of  our 
most  remarkable  links  of  association. 

"  'Twas  ever  thus.    As  now  at  Virgil's  tomb 
We  bless  the  shade  and  bid  the  verdure  bloom ; 
So  Tully  paused,  amid  the  wrecks  of  Time, 
On  the  rude  stone  to  trace  the  truth  sublime, 
When  at  his  feet,  in  honored  dust  disclosed, 
The  Immortal  Sage  of  Syracuse  reposed." 

Picturing  out  scenes.  Children  are  passionately  fond  of 
pictures,  whether  real  or  imaginary,  whether  addressed 
to  the  outward  or  to  the  inward  sense  of  vision.  This 
passion  constitutes  one  of  the  most  unconquerable  in- 
stincts of  our  nature:  but  why  should  we  wish  to  con- 
quer it  ?  none  but  antiquated  governesses  or  old  maiden 
ladies  would  do  such  violence  to  our  happy  nature. 

••  'Twas  here,  at  eve,  we  formed  our  fairy  ring; 
And  Fancy  fluttered  on  her  wildest  wing. 
Giants  and  genii  chained  each  wondering  ear; 
And  orphan  sorrows  drew  the  ready  tear. 
Oft  with  the  babes  we  wandered  in  the  wood. 
Or  viewed  the  forest  feasts  of  Robin  Hood : 
Oft  fancy-led,  at  midnight's  fearful  hour, 
With  startling  step  we  scaled  the  lonely  tower. 
O'er  infant  innocence  to  hang  and  weep, 
Murdered  by  ruffian  hands,  when  smiling  in  Its  sleep." 

The  gallery  lessons  given  to  children  should  contain 

pictures  addressed  to  the  imagination.     This  mode  of 

instruction  not  only  secures  their  attention  by  gratifying 

their  intellectual  instincts,  but  also  supplies  their  recol- 

lective  faculty  with  appropriate   links   of   association. 


240  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

The  picturing  style  of  teaching  gives  life  and  vivacity 
to  a  class;  whereas  the  dull,  dry,  sermonizing  style  of 
giving  a  lesson  is  better  than  any  soporific  to  be  found 
in  the  Pharmacopoeia.  The  tick -tick  of  the  clock  in  our 
room  is  rarely  heard:  so  it  is  with  the  repetition  of  cer- 
tain set  forms  of  words:  the  sounds  grow  familiar  to  our 
ears;  and  the  ideas,  however  sacred,  like  an  oft-told 
tale,  cease  to  make  any  impression  on  our  minds. 

This  is  especially  the  case  with  respect  to  scripture 
reading.  The  plan  of  picturing  out  the  scenes  and  events 
connected  with  a  passage  of  scripture  that  may  have 
been  read,  is  eminently  calculated  to  produce  the  most 
vivid  and  lasting  impressions  on  the  minds  of  children. 

In  order  to  illustrate  this  plan  of  teaching,  let  us  sup- 
pose the  first  three  verses  of  the  sixth  chapter  of  St. 
John  to  have  been  read  by  the  master  to  his  pupils. 
How  few  of  the  children  would  trouble  themselves  at 
all  about  the  familiar  sounds  that  had  fallen  upon  their 
ears  !  and  of  the  few  who  had  given  their  attention  to 
the  matter,  how  many  of  them  could  form  any  clear 
conception  of  the  ideas  intended  to  be  conveyed  ?  A 
skilful  teacher,  it  is  true,  might,  by  the  usual  method  of 
interrogation,  succeed  in  making  the  children  compre- 
hend the  subject-matter  of  the  verses;  but  how  long 
would  they  retain  the  ideas  thus  conveyed  to  them  ? 
how  many  of  them  would  be  able  to  answer  the  ques- 
tions that  might  be  put  to  them  by  thf  master  on  the 
following  day  ? 

But  now  suppose  that  the  master  could,  by  some 
magic  power,  show  to  his  pupils  the  real  scene  which 
these    verses    describe.*     Suppose    he    could    go  back 

•Tills  picture  is  mainly  taken  from  Abbott's  "  Young  Christian." 


PICTURING   OUT   SCENES.  241 

through  the  eighteen  hundred 'years  which  have  elapsed 
since  those  events  occurred,  and  taking  his  pupils  to 
some  elevation  in  the  romantic  scenery  of  Palestine, 
from  which  they  might  overlook  the  country  of  Galilee, 
show  them  all  that  this  chapter  describes. 

"Do  you  see,"  he  might  say,  "that  wide  sea  which 
spreads  out  beneath  us,  and  occupies  the  whole  extent 
of  the  valley?  That  is  the  sea  of  Tiberias;  it  is  also 
called  the  sea  of  Galilee.  All  this  country  which  spreads 
around  it  is  Galilee.  Those  distant  mountains  are  in 
Galilee,  and  that  beautiful  wood  which  skirts  the  shore 
is  a  Galilean  forest." 

"  Why  is  it  called  the  sea  of  Tiberias  ?  "  a  child  might 
ask. 

"  Do  you  see  at  the  foot  of  that  hill,  on  the  opposite 
shore  of  the  lake,  a  small  town  ?  It  extends  alone^  the 
margin  of  the  water  for  a  considerable  distance.  That 
is  Tiberias,  and  the  lake  sometimes  takes  the  name  of 
that  town. 

"But  look!  Do  you  see  that  small  boat  coming 
round  a  point  of  land  which  juts  out  beautifully  from 
this  side  of  the  lake  ?  It  is  slowly  making  its  way  across 
the  water;  we  can  almost  hear  the  splashing  of  the  oars. 
It  contains  the  Savior  and  some  of  His  disciples.  They 
are  steering  towards  Tiberias:  now  they  approach  the 
shore;  they  stop  at  the  landing,  and  the  Savior,  followed 
by  His  disciples,  walks  up  the  shore. 

"  Some  sick  person  is  brought  to  the  Savior  to  be 
healed.  Another  and  another  is  brought.  A  crowd 
collects  around  Him.  He  retreats  slowly  up  the  rising 
ground,  and,  after  a  little  time,  He  takes  His  place  upon 


242  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

an  elevated  spot,  where  He  can  overlook  and  address  the 
throng." 

If  teachers  could  accustom  themselves  to  the  habit  of 
drawing  pictures  like  this,  how  strong  and  how  lasting 
would  be  the  impression  made  on  the  minds  of  their  pupils! 
Yeai's,  and  perhaps  the  whole  of  life  itself,  would  not 
obliterate  the  impression.  Even  this  faint  description, 
though  it  brings  nothing  new  to  the  mind,  will  make  a 
much  stronger  and  more  lasting  impression  than  merely 
reading  the  narration  would  do.  And  what  is  the 
reason  ?  Why,  it  is  only  because  we  have  endeavored 
to  lead  you  to  picture  this  scene  to  your  minds,  to  con- 
ceive of  it  strongly  and  clearly.  Now  any  teacher  can 
do  this  for  himself,  in  regard  to  any  passage  of  scripture. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  we  should  go  on  and  delineate  in 
this  manner  the  whole  of  the  account.  Each  teacher 
can,  if  he  will  task  his  imagination,  picture  for  himself 
the  scenes  which  the  Bible  describes.  And  if  he  does 
bring  his  intellect  and  his  powers  of  conception  to  the 
work,  and  read  not  merely  to  repeat  formally  and  coldly 
sounds  already  familliar,  but  to  bring  vivid  and  clear 
conceptions  to  his  mind  of  all  which  is  represented  there, 
he  will  be  interested  himself  and  will  also  interest  his 
pupils.  He  will  find  new  and  striking  scenes  con- 
tinually coming  up  to  view,  and  will  be  surprised  at  the 
novelty  and  interest  which  this  simple  and  easy  effort 
will  throw  over  those  very  portions  of  the  Bible  with 
which  the  ear  has  become  most  completely  familliar. 

6.  Frivolous,  unnatural,  or  unpleasant  associations  should  he 
avoided.     Fear  enfeebles  tJis  memory,  and  terror  paralyzes  it. 
Our  associations  should  always  be  in  keeping  with  the 


ENFEEBLING    INFLUENCE    OF    FEAR.  243 

dignity  of  the  subject.  The  unnatural  and  trifling  modes 
of  association  adopted  by  the  advocates  of  systems  of 
MNEMONICS,  are  unworthy  the  notice  of  intellectual 
teachers  of  youth.  If  any  artificial  system  of  memory 
is  necessary,  it  should  be  constructed  on  the  principle  of 
the  chemical  nomenclature,  which  is  really  one  of  the 
best  systems  of  tnemoria  techniea  that  ever  has  been 
invented. 

The  plan  of  giving  tasks  as  punishments  cannot  be  too 
strongly  deprecated:  it  invests  learning  with  painful 
associations,  and  most  effectually  engenders  a  sullen  and 
wilful  habit  of  inattention. 

Fear  enfeebles  the  memory,  by  producing  tremor  and 
nervous  debility.  How  can  a  boy  exercise  his  memory 
when  the  terrors  of  the  rod  are  placed  before  him  ? 
How  can  the  intellectual  faculties  exercise  themselves 
freely  or  vigorously  when  the  soul  is  manacled  ?  When 
the  axe  of  the  executioner  is  about  to  fall  upon  the 
doomed  wretch,  can  you  expect  him  to  admire  the  sur- 
rounding scenery,  or  to  observe  the  various  passions 
pictured  on  the  faces  of  the  eager  crowd  ? 

"  Come  here,  you  dunce,"  says  the  pedagogue  to  his 
task-ridden  pupil  —  "  Come  here,  —  well  now,  what 
dost  thou  chiefly  learn  in  these  Articles  of  thy  Belief  ?  " 
To  which  the  boy  with  trembling  and  hesitation  answers 

—"First  I  learn ."     "Well,  what  do  you  leam?" 

To  which  the  boy,  rendered  stupid  by  fear,  replies — 
"Please,  sir,  I  don't  know."  "You  saucy  blockhead — 
there,  take  that,  and  that, — now  you  stand  there,  and 
never  move  from  the  spot  until  you  have  committed  the 
whole  of  the  question,  word  for  word,  to  memory.  In 
an  instant  give  over  crying,  or  I  shall  give  you  some- 


244  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

thing  to  cry  for, — what  are  you  sobbing  for  ?  "  "  Please, 
sir, — I  canuoL — help — it."  "You  cannot  helj) — saucy 
again — I'll  make  you  help  it, — there — there — and  there 
— now  you  remember  that  the  rod  bites,  if  you  cannot 
remember  your  task."  True,  the  boy  will  probably 
remember  to  the  day  of  his  death  that  he  was  cruelly 
thrashed  because  he  could  not  repeat  the  answer  to  the 
question  on  the  Articles  of  Belief. 

A  wise  teacher,  in  the  place  of  thrashing  his  dull 
pupil,  would  assist  him  completing  his  task,  by  first 
impressing  the  ideas  contained  in  it  on  his  memory. 
After  having  read  the  answer  twice  or  thrice  over,  he 
might  proceed  as  follows:  "The  answer  to  this  question 
contains  three  parts.  The  first  relates  to  God  the  Fa- 
ther; the  second  to  God  the  Son;  and  the  third  to  God 
the  Holy  Ghost.  Let  us  now  break  down  the  ideas  con- 
tained in  the  first  part.  In  whom  have  we  to  believe?" 
"  In  God  the  Father."  "  What  is  God  here  said  to  be?" 
"  He  is  said  to  be  the  Father."  "  What  have  you  to  do 
in  reference  to  God  the  Father?  "  "I  have  to  believe 
in  Him."  "What  did  God  the  Father  do  for  you?" 
"  He  made  me."  "  What  did  He  make  besides  ?  "  "  He 
made  all  the  world." 

Proceeding  in  this  way,  the  judicious  teacher  might 
analyze  the  whole  of  the  answer;  after  this  is  dt)ne,  the 
pupil  would  probably  find  little  difficulty  in  committing 
it  to  memory. 

v.  The  memory  should  be  cultivated  m  relation  to  common 
things  and  everyday  events. 

The  most  ordinary  and  trifling  occurrences  may  be 
made  a  source  of  intellectual  improvement:  as  the  habits 


INSTRUCTION  SHOULD  BE  GIVEN  REGULARLY.         245 

of  animals,  or  the  manners  of  a  people;  the  construction 
of  articles  of  furniture  and  clothing;  the  structure  of  a 
feather,  a  leaf,  or  a  flower;  the  mode  of  building  houses, 
or  the  making  of  a  pin;  and  so  on. 

The  difference  of  information  found  amongst  men 
does  not  depend  so  much  upon  the  number  of  sights 
which  they  have  witnessed,  as  upon  the  remembrance 
of  the  ideas  which  those  sights  are  calculated  to  sug- 
gest. Mr.  S.  never  goes  on  a  jouiney,  no  matter  how 
short,  without  being  able  to  amuse  his  family  by  relat- 
ing to  them  some  incident,  or  to  describe  to  them  some- 
thing new.  "I  don'  know  how  it  is,"  says  Mr.  B.,  who 
had  travelled  over  the  world  for  the  mere  sake  of  loco- 
motion, "  that  my  friend  Mr.  S.  finds  so  much  to  talk 
about.  He  cannot  go  a  journey  of  a  dozen  miles  without 
having  had  adventures  enough  to  serve  a  man  for  a  life- 
time; for  my  part,  I  have  visited  most  of  the  great  cities 
in  the  world,  but  I  can  hardly  get  people  to  listen  to  my 
stories."  The  fact  is,  Mr.  S.  was  an  observing  man,  and 
never  allowed  an  opportunity  to  slip  without  storing  his 
memory  with  useful  facts;  with  him  every  new  event 
became  the  nucleus  of  a  new  series  of  thoughts. 

8.  Instruction  should  be  given  on  a  regular  and  connected 
plan. 

Every  lesson  should  have  its  proper  time  assigned  to 
it,  and  it  should  always  be  given  at  that  time.  A  sub- 
ject should  never  be  taught  by  fits  and  starts;  for  noth- 
ing so  much  enfeebles  the  recollection  as  sudden  leaps 
from  one  branch  of  knowledge  to  another.  When  the 
foundations  of  one  science  are  fairly  laid,  then  another 
one  may  be  commenced;  but  a  schoolmaster,  like  the 


246  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

blacksmith,  should  never  have  too  many  irons  in  the 
fire.  "Nothing,"  says  Abercrombie,  "appears  to  con- 
tribute more  to  progress  in  any  intellectual  pursuit  than 
the  practice  of  keeping  one  subject  habitually  before  the 
mind,  and  of  daily  contributing  something  towards  the 
prosecution  of  it."  Important  subjects  of  knowledge, 
having  thus  had  time  for  their  roots  to  spread  them- 
selves in  the  soil,  become,  as  it  were,  incorporated  with 
the  mind  itself. 

II.  The  memory  is  stre^igthened  hy  all  those  exercises  ivhich 
tend  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  attention. 

We  have  already  explained  some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant artifices  which  may  be  employed  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  habit  of  attention;  the  following,  however,  de- 
serve especial  notice  in  relation  to  the  faculty  of  recol- 
lection. 

1.  Interrogate  your  pupils  upon  what  they  may  have  read. 

2.  Get  your  pupils  to  put  questions  to  each  other  at  the  end  of 
a  lesson ;  and  also  to  talk  tog  ether  ^  after  school  hourSj  about  the 
subjects  of  the  day^s  instruction. 

3.  The  pupils  should  write^  in  their  own  language, 
what  is  most  important  for  them  to  remember. 

These  notes  should  be  neatly  and  methodically  writ- 
ten— they  should  not  be  mere  extracts  from  books,  or 
verbatim  reports  of  lessons. 

4.  Make  your  pupils  familiar  m?«^A  important  principles  and 
results. 

It  is  not  suflicient  for  your  pupils  simply  to  remember 
important  principles  and  results, — they  should  remember 


CULTIVATION    OF   IMAGINATION   AND   TASTE.  247 

them  perfectly,  that  is,  in  such  a  way  that  it  would  be 
impossible  ever  to  forget  them. 

"James,"  a  teacher  might  say  to  his  pupil,  "have  you 
learnt  the  fourth  line  of  your  multiplication  table  yet  ?  " 
"Yes,  sir, — I  said  it  to  you  yesterday."  "It  is  true, 
my  boy,  you  said  it,  but  it  was  done  with  some  hesita- 
tion. You  must  learn  it  so  thoroughly  that  nothing  can 
put  you  out  when  you  are  called  upon  to  repeat  it.  Now 
you  go  on  with  the  fourth  line,  while  I  repeat  the  fifth, 
and  we  shall  see  whether  you  put  me  out,  or  I  put  you 
out." 

As  a  matter  of  course,  James  is  put  out;  whereupon 
the  teacher  might  go  on  to  say, — "Now  I  have  put  you 
out."  "Well,  sir,  but  I  could  have  said  it  correctly  if 
you  had  not  ^jarred  with  me."  "  Exactly  so.  But  do 
you  think  that  I  could  put  you  out  in  repeating  the 
alphabet  ? — Let  us  try. 

"Here,  you  see,  I  cannot  put  you  out,  because  you 
have  learnt  the  alphabet  perfectly.  Kow  it  is  equally 
important  that  you  should  learn  the  multiplication  table 
perfectly." 


CHAP.  V. 

CULTIVATION  OF  THE  INTELLECTUAL  FACULTIES,  CONTINUED.-ON  THE  CUL- 
TIVATION OF  IMAGINATION  AND  TASTE.' 

There  is  no  faculty  of  the  mind  which  requires  more 
careful  culture  than  that  of  imagination.  When  prop- 
erly regulated  and  directed,  it  may  be  made  to  contrib- 
ute to  the  development  of  all  that  is  noble  and  estima- 


248  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

ble  in  our  nature.  It  forms  an  essential  element  of 
inventive  genius.  By  imagination  we  are  enabled,  as 
it  were,  to  place  ourselves  in  the  situation  of  others,  and 
to  sympathize  with  them  in  their  distress,  or  to  partici- 
pate in  their  sorrows.  A  man  deficient  in  imagination, 
however  estimable  he  may  be  in  his  general  conduct,  is 
usually  unsocial,  illiberal,  and  selfish.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  person  with  a  wild,  misguided  imagination,  oc- 
cupies his  mind  in  the  pursuit  of  idle  dreams  and  delu- 
sions, to  the  neglect  of  all  those  pursuits  which  are  cal- 
culated to  ennoble  a  rational  being.  The  imagination 
should  always  be  kept  under  the  control  of  reason,  and 
it  should  never  be  allowed  to  wander  too  long  at  discre- 
tion amid  beautiful  and  fallacious  scenes,  so  as  to  impair 
the  judgment.  The  unrestrained  indulgence  of  imagin- 
ation often  exercises  an  enfeebling  influence  over  the 
other  powers  of  the  intellect:  but  a  properly  regulated 
imagination  gives  strength  to  all  the  other  faculties,  and 
adds  a  charm  to  existence. 

"  His  the  city's  pomp: 
Tlie  rural  honors  his.    Wliate'er  adorns 
The  princely  dome,  the  colunui,  or  the  arch, 
The  breathing  marbles,  or  the  sculptured  gold, 
Beyond  the  proud  possessor's  narrow  claim, 
His  tuneful  breast  enjoys.    For  him,  the  Spring 
Distils  her  dews,  and  from  the  silken  gem 
Its  lucid  leaves  unfolds:  for  liim,  the  hand 
Of  Autunni  tinges  every  fertile  branch 
With  blooming  gold,  and  blushes  like  the  morn. 
Each  passing  hour  sheds  tribute  from  her  wings; 
And  still  new  beauties  meet  his  lonely  walk, 
And  loves  unfelt  attract  him.    Not  a  breeze 
Flies  o'er  the  meadow— not  a  cloud  imbibes 
The  setting  Sun's  eltulgeuce— not  a  strain 
From  all  the  tenants  of  the  warbling  shade 
Ascends,  but  whence  his  bosom  can  partake 
Fresh  pleasure,  uureproved." 


CULTIVATION    OF    IMAGINATION   AND   TASTE.  249 

To  cultivate  the  imagination,  we  should  exercise  it  on 
legitimate  objects,  and  this  should  be  done  in  harmony 
with  the  development  of  the  other  powers  of  the  mind. 
The  imagination  is  exercised — (1)  by  fictitious  narra- 
tives; (2)  by  compositions  of  the  poet  and  the  orator, 
addressed  to  the  passions;  (3)  by  sallies  of  wit  and  hu- 
mor; (4)  by  works  of  art  addressed  to  the  sense  of  the 
beautiful. 

The  man  who  excels  in  all,  or  any,  of  these  produc- 
tion of  imagination,  is  said  to  have  an  inventive  genius; 
but  it  is  obvious  that  this  must  depend  quite  as  much 
upon  the  strength  of  the  faculty  of  reason  as  upon  that 
of  imagination.  Geometers  and  scientific  discoverers 
are  often  much  indebted  to  the  fertility  of  their  imag- 
ination. Persons  of  extraordinary  power  of  imagination 
are  not  unfrequently  deficient  in  judgment.  Why? 
Certainly  not  from  any  want  of  harmony  between  these 
faculties,  but  rather  from  the  want  of  a  proper  educa- 
tion; for  a  man  of  philosophic  intellect  must  have  a 
vigorous  imagination:  the  genius  of  the  poet  and  that 
of  the  mathematician  are  more  nearly  allied  than  people 
generally  suppose. 

I.  The  picturing  style  of  teaching  (described  in  relation  to 
the  cultivation  of  memory)  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  devel- 
oping the  imagination  of  children. 

Very  few  of  our  works  of  imagination  are  simple 
enough  for  tne  comprehension  of  a  child, — the  sen- 
tences in  them  are  too  long  and  involved,  and  the  figures 
and  analogical  phrases  are  too  far  beyond  the  range  of 
his  experience.  We  cannot  expect  authors  (who  gener- 
ally care  more  for  their  own  fame  than  for  the  improve- 


250  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

raent  of  their  readers)  to  put  in  print  all  the  little  and 
apparently  trifling  things  which  they  would  say  to  a 
child.  An  experienced  teacher,  on  the  other  hand,  nat- 
urally clothes  his  ideas  in  short,  pithy  sentences,  and 
draws  his  illustrations  and  figures  of  speech  from  the 
things  with  which  his  pupils  are  most  familiar:  he  will 
frequently  analyze  the  figures  or  analogies  which  he 
employs,  so  as  to  render  their  appositeness  more  vivid 
and  apparent,  and  to  show  the  difference  between  a 
metaphor  and  an  analogical  phrase;  and  above  all  things, 
he  will  constantly  endeavor  to  inspire  his  pupils  with  a 
love  of  nature,  and  to  kindle  within  them  the  sentiment 
of  beauty.  When  he  has  occasion  to  call  the  attention 
of  his  pupils  to  the  aspect  of  the  morning  sky,  he  speaks 
of  the  "blushing  morn,"  or,  it  may  be,  "the  rosy  morn;" 
if  anything  comes  suddenly  into  his  mind,  it  "flashes  " 
upon  him;  if  he  draws  a  picture  of  an  extensive  forest, 
he  speaks  of  "the  trackless  woods;"  if  he  makes  a  com- 
parison between  imagination  and  reason,  he  speaks  of 
fancy's  flash  and  reason's  ray.  He  speaks  of  reason  as 
the  rudder  of  the  soul,  which  guides  us  through  the 
stoimy  sea  of  lite;  of  hope  as  the  anchor  of  the  soul;  of 
religion  as  the  great  pillar  of  the  state;  of  remorse  as  the 
never-dying  worm  which  gnaws  the  vitals  of  its  victim;  of 
crime  as  a  loathsome  monster,  and  virtue  as  a  lovely  angel 
clothed  in  light;  of  the  darkness  of  ignorance,  and  the 
light  of  knowledge;  of  old  age  as  the  autumn  of  life, 
when  all  that  is  lovely  withers  and  decays;  o^ XX\q  ichisper 
of  the  breeze,  and  the  roar  of  the  tempest. 

II.   The  imagination  of  children  is  cultivated  by  simple  pieces 
of  poetry,  or  hy  prose  compositions  of  taste  and  feeling. 


CULTIVATION    OF    IMAGINATION   AND   TASTE.  251 

Simple  good  poetry  delights  the  ear  of  children,  at  the 
same  time  that  it  elevates  their  characters;  aud  even  the 
harmony  of  elegant  prose,  if  not  beyond  their  compre- 
hension, will  melt  their  tender  souls.  The  best  books 
for  children  are  those  which  contain  simple  phrases  of 
beauty,  which  turn  on  figures  that  depend  on  points  of 
harmony  or  analogy  between  the  physical  and  the  moral 
world.  "  Pilgrim's  Progress  "  is  one  of  the  best  books 
for  children  of  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age.  Children 
should  never  be  allowed  to  read  poetry  which  they 
cannot  understand,  far  less  to  commit  it  to  memory. 
How  matter-of-fact  a  poetical  conception  becomes  after 
it  has  been  profaned,  day  after  day,  by  senseless  repe- 
titions !  How  many  of  our  intellectual  pleasures  have 
been  marred,  by  our  having  had  the  language  of  poetry 
impressed  upon  our  memories  at  a  time  when  we  could 
not  realize  its  import  !  Rhetorical  readings,  in  schools, 
are  something  like  the  exhibitions  of  the  common  phan- 
tasmagoria—things to  laugh  at.  Teachers  commit  a 
gross  mistake  when  they  attempt  to  bring  the  higher 
faculty  of  imagination  too  soon  into  play ;  just  in  the 
same  way  as  many  persons  lose  at  chess  by  moving  their 
queen  too  early  in  the  game.  Every  faculty  must  be 
fully  developed  before  the  infant  soul  can  spread  its 
wings  and  fly  towards  the  higher  heaven  of  poetry. 
True  poetry  is  the  holy  of  holies  of  the  intellectual  tab- 
ernacle, into  which  no  one  should  enter  until  all  his 
faculties  are  matured  and  consecrated. 

III.  Fables  and  simple  tales  are  amongst  the  best  means  of 
cultivating  the  imagination  of  children. 

Children  must  romance,  whether  we  permit  them  or 


252  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATIOK. 

not, — it  is  one  of  the  most  uncontrollable  laws  of  human 
nature.  Good  fables  and  tales  always  contain  instruc- 
tion,— they  turn  facts  into  poetry,  and  instruct  the 
reason  through  the  imagination.  Some  little  stories 
contain,  in  an  unobtrusive  form,  more  practical  wisdom 
than  many  learned  homilies.  Who  would  wish  to  for- 
get the  story  about  the  fox  and  the  grapes;  or  the  dog 
and  the  shadow;  or  the  shepherd  boy  and  the  wolf;  or 
'the  dog  in  the  manger;  or  the  cock  and  the  diamond; 
or  the  lion  and  the  mouse;  and  so  on?  Nothing  affords 
children  a  more  sparkling  entertainment,  than  to  listen 
to  the  parley  between  the  lion  and  the  ass,  or  between 
the  fox  and  the  crow;  while  each  of  them  adheres  to 
its  character  with  dramatic  strictness,  each,  at  the  same 
time,  personates  some  moral  quality.  The  perception 
of  this  analogy  leads,  in  the  most  pleasurable  manner, 
to  the  cultivation  of  abstraction  and  reason. 

What  child  does  not  read  the  Arabian  Nights'  Enter- 
tainments with  the  most  lively  emotions  ?  Children 
like  to  transport  themselves,  on  the  wings  of  imagina- 
tion, from  the  cold  and  sober  realities  of  our  northern 
clime  to  the  warm  and  romantic  scenes  of  oriental  climes, 
with  their  glitering  caverns  and  golden  palaces,  their 
genii  and  their  wonderful  lamps  and  rings,  their  brilliant 
skies  and  gorgeous  flowers. 

*'  Let  Fiction  come,  upon  her  vagrant  wings 
Wafting  ten  tliousand  colors  through  the  air, 
Wliile,  by  tlie  gUinces  of  lier  magic  eye, 
She  bends  and  sliifts  at  will,  through  counUess  forms, 
Her  wild  creation." 

Good  tales  contain  nothing  really  deceptive;  for  a 
child,  with  a  properly  regulated  mind,  knows  perfectly 
well  when  he  passes  the  boundary  line  which  separates 


CULTIVATION    OF    IMAGINATION    AND   TASTE.  253 

the  region  of  fiction  from  that  of  facts.  The  very  worst 
tales  are  those  which  adhere  too  rigidly  to  every-day 
scenes  and  events,  and  inculcate  religion  and  morality 
with  all  the  mock  solemnity  of  a  theological  primer. 
Those  very  pious,  truthful,  sermonizing  tales  (such  as 
Peter  Parley's)  outrage  the  patience  of  children,  and 
really  defeat  the  end  which  they  have  in  view.  How 
can  the  soul  of  a  child  approach  its  God,  clothed  in  the 
garb  of  fiction  ! 

None  of  our  modern  novels  are  sufficiently  adapted  to 
the  juvenile  mind;  they  are  too  long;  their  stories,  for 
the  most  part,  are  neither  simple  enough,  nor  romantic 
enough;  and  besides,  they  generally  pre-suppose  a 
knowledge  of  human  nature  and  character  which  boys 
below  fourteen  years  of  age  cannot  possibly  possess. 
We  should  like  to  see  a  few  novelettes  written  after  the 
fashion  of  Waverly,  or  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  but 
rendered  somewhat  more  infantine  in  the  characters  de- 
scribed. 

No  tale  should  do  any  unnecessary  violence  to  the 
feelings  and  sympathies  of  children:  if  the  storytells  of 
hideous  wild  beasts  in  pursuit  of  some  innocent  little 
child,  they  should  always  at  last  meet  with  a  proper 
punishment:  or  if  it  describes  dismal  dungeons  or  deep 
caverns,  some  way  out  of  them  should  always  be  found, 
leading  to  celestial  scenes  of  loveliness  and  enjoyment; 
or  if  it  relates  the  adventures,  by  sea  and  land,  of  some 
tameless  being,  he  should  always  at  last  find  a  quiet  and 
happy  home.  We  do  not  appear  to  have  made  any  ad- 
vance in  this  kind  of  literature,  at  least  for  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century.  Hans  Andersen's  fairy  stories  of 
the  Flying  Trunk,  the  Wild  Swans,  &c.,  are  very  much 


254  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

inferior  to  our  old  oriental  tales:  what  modern  story  of 
adventures  can  be  placed  by  the  side  of  our  old  and  dear 
friend,  Robinson  Crusoe  ? 

IV.  The  sentiment  of  the  leautifuly  in  children^  should  he  cul- 
tivated hy  drawing  and  tmisic. 

Children  should  be  taught  drawing  and  music,  almost 
as  soon  as  they  can  speak.  They  should  be  early  led  to 
copy  the  most  beautiful  forms,  and  to  sing  the  sweetest 
songs.  Whatever  is  insipid,  or  defonned,  should  never 
be  placed  before  them  for  imitation.  The  sentiment  of 
taste  should  be  constantly  cultivated,  by  directing  their 
attention  to  whatever  is  captivating  in  nature,  or  beauti- 
ful in  art.  The  cultivation  of  taste  not  only  affords  us 
a  refined  source  of  pleasure,  but  also,  somehow  or  other, 
gives  force  and  acuteness  to  the  moral  sense. 


CHAP.  VI. 

CULTIVATION  OF  THE  INTELLECTUAL  FACULTIES,  CONTINUED— ON  THE  CULTIVA- 
TION  OF  REASON   AND  JUDGMENT. 

Reason  is  that  mental  faculty  whereby  we  distinguish 
truth  from  falsehood.  When  we  duly  exercise  this  fac- 
ulty, we  compare  facts  with  facts,  and  events  with 
events,  and  from  their  relations  and  bearings  we  deduce 
certain  conclusions.  We  say  that  a  man  possesses  a 
sound  judgment,  when  he  judges  correctly  of  the  rela- 
tions of  facts,  events,  or  circumstances,  and  gives  to  each 
its  due  amount  of  influence  in  the  conclusions,  or  dedue- 


CULTIVATION   OF   REASON.  256 

tions,  which  he  makes.  Reason  is,  in  a  certain  sense, 
opposed  to  imagination,  inasmuch  as  it  deals  solely  with 
facts  and  realities.  Reason  is  distinguished  from  simple 
memory,  by  which  facts  or  events  are  merely  connected 
by  the  laws  of  association,  without  any  regard  to  their 
natural  or  philosophical  relation.  Reason,  in  a  well- 
regulated  mind,  holds  the  mastery  of  all  the  other  fac- 
ulties: it  gives  strength  and  precision  to  every  one  of 
them,  and  harmonizes  and  regulates  their  operations  as 
a  whole;  as  we  have  already  shown,  it  especially  im- 
proves the  memory,  and  checks  any  unhealthy  exuber- 
ance of  imagination.  No  faculty  in  our  nature  is  more 
susceptible  of  cultivation  than  reason;  and  the  neglect 
of  its  cultivation  is  attended  with  the  greatest  possible 
evils,  as  well  to  the  individual  as  to  society  at  large.  No 
doubt  there  are  original  differences  in  the  power  of 
reason,  but  we  have  no  hesitation  in  stating  that  the 
chief  source  of  the  differences  in  this  power  found 
amongst  men  is  to  be  traced  to  culture  and  discipline. 
When  we  neglect  the  cultivation  of  the  reason  of  young 
persons,  their  minds  become  engrossed  by  trifles,  or  car- 
ried away  by  the  wild  freaks  of  imagination;  and  the 
most  sacred  and  momentous  opinions  are  either  treated 
with  unbecoming  levity  and  indifference,  or  accepted 
without  thought  or  reflection.  Such  persons  readily  be- 
come the  victims  of  sophistry,  or  the  willing  slaves  of 
superstition  and  bigotry.  They  have  not  the  power,  be- 
cause the  habit  has  not  been  cultivated,  of  giving  a  full 
and  candid  examination  of  all  the  facts  which  ought  to 
influence  their  opinions  in  any  subject  of  inquiry.  Such 
persons  never  pursue  truth  for  its  own  sake, — they  do 
»ot  know  what  it  is  to  yield  their  minds  to  the  force  of 


256  PHiLOsoniY  of  education. 

truth;  and,  as  a  necessary  consequence,  tlieir  opinions 
are  formed  from  prejudice  or  passion. 

Reason  is,  of  course,  aided  by  other  mental  faculties, 
such  as  memory,  attention,  conception,  and  abstraction, 
but  especially  by  attention  and  conception.  These  two 
faculties,  as  we  have  already  shown,  are  strictly  volun- 
tary faculties,  and  therefore  may  be  greatly  strengthened 
and  developed  by  exercise  and  habit.  A  vivid  concep- 
tion of  all  the  })arts  of  a  subject  of  investigation,  is  the 
first  great  step  gained  in  the  process  of  inquiry. 

It  has  not  been  considered  necessary,  in  what  follows, 
to  make  any  distinction  between  an  act  of  judgment  and 
an  act  of  reason.  Our  higher  kinds  of  judgment  seem 
to  involve  all  the  essential  elements  of  a  process  of  rea- 
soning. 

The  following  general  rules  may  be  laid  down  for  cul- 
tivating the  reasoning  powers  of  children. 

I.  The  minds  of  children  should  he  first  exercised  in  easy 
processes  of  reasoning,  adapted  to  their  state  of  mtellectual 
development.  Their  reaso?i  should  be  first  exercised  in  the  dis- 
cernment of  the  relations,  connections,  tendencies  and  analogies  of 
familiar  facts. 

Until  a  child  has  some  knowledge  of  facts  and  effects, 
he  cannot  inquire  into  principles  or  causes.  Our  first 
steps  in  the  process  of  reasoning  are  observation  and 
comparison;  then  follow  deduction  and  generalization. 
A  child  is  capable  of  forming  conclusions  long  before  he 
can  put  his  reasoning  into  language.  The  teacher  should 
be  in  no  haste  to  break  the  spell  of  this  silent — this 
truly  ideal — process  of  reasoning;  it  is  better  that  ideas 
— conceptions — judgments  —  should   precede  language, 


CULTIVATION    OF   REASON.  267 

for  the  formality  of  language  too  often  casts  a  blight- 
ing shadow  over  what  might  otherwise  have  been  a 
glowing  vital  conception.  But  this  solitary  communion 
of  a  child  with  nature  cannot  always  go  on;  it  is  proper 
that  the  child  should  be  for  a  time  cast  upon  the  bosom 
of  nature;  but  after  the  nursling  has  attained  a  certain 
stage  of  spontaneous  development,  it  is  necessary  that 
he  should  be  able  to  express  his  ideas  in  language,  in 
order  that  he  may  profit  from  the  results  of  the  experi- 
ence of  others.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  vocabulary  of 
children  should  be  gradually  enlarged  with  the  enlarge- 
ment of  their  ideas  or  real  knowledge.  Words  become 
a  hindrance  to  reasoning,  when  the  vocabulary  of  the 
child  exceeds  his  ideas.  This  we  cannot  help  regarding 
as  one  of  the  greatest  evils  in  our  present  systems  of 
education;  and  we  are  sorry  to  observe  that  men  high 
in  authority  have  recently  given,  indirectly  at  least, 
their  countenance  to  the  evil,  by  exacting  a  knowledge 
of  the  latter,  rather  than  the  spirit,  of  certain  subjects 
of  instruction, — such  as  religion,  geometry,  arithmetic, 
and  algebra. 

The  reason  of  children  is  frequently  misled  by  the 
erroneous  use  of  words.  We  should  constantly  encour- 
age them  to  explain  their  views  and  opinions,  in  order 
that  we  may  rectify  their  errors.  Some  people  do  not 
care  what  absurdities  they  utter  in  reasoning  with  chil- 
dren; they  do  not  hesitate  to  talk  to  them  about  things 
which  are  far  above  their  comprehension,  and  they  have 
always  a  ready  explanation  to  give  of  matters  involving 
the  greatest  mystery.  Such  tutors  fill  the  young  mind 
with  errors  and  prejudices,  which  years  of  training  may 
fail  to  eradicate ;  for  it  is  often  more  difficult  for  us  to 
I 


268  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

unlearn  what  is  false  than  it  is  to  learn  what  is  true.  To 
judge  whether  a  subject  of  reasoning  is  within  the  com- 
prehension of  a  child,  we  should  consider  whether  the 
facts  or  events  upon  which  it  is  based  are  within  the 
range  of  his  experience. 

Reasoning  must  not  be  rendered  a  task,  or  conducted 
in  so  formal  a  manner  as  to  weary  the  mind  of  the  pupil ; 
the  exercise  of  his  reason  must  be  spontaneous.  We 
should  give  him  the  facts  and  materials  for  reasoning, 
rather  than  make  a  direct  demand  upon  his  reason.  A 
desultory  style  of  presenting  those  facts  will  best  secure 
our  purpose;  for  it  is  a  law  of  the  human  mind  that 
while  we  can  achieve  but  little  in  the  higher  processes  of 
reasoning  without  the  strictest  observance  of  order, — in 
the  iirst  steps  of  reasoning,  on  the  contrary,  we  seem  to 
derive  the  most  healthful  excitement  from  the  very  ab- 
sence of  order.  Every  experienced  teacher  knows  this 
to  be  true,  and  unconsciously  acts  upon  this  conviction. 
The  reasoning  powers  of  a  child  are  exercised  whenever 
we  put  the  question  why,  or  receive  the  answer  because. 
The  higher  principles  of  a  science  should  never  be 
taught  before  the  pupil  has  been  made  acquainted  with 
the  relations  and  analogies  of  the  most  familiar  facts. 
But  many  teachers,  for  the  sake  of  following  what  they 
conceive  to  be  a  logical  order,  or,  it  may  be,  the  arrange- 
ment given  in  their  text-books,  reverse  the  natural 
order,  and  teach  the  most  abstract  and  least  attractive 
things  first. 

Mathematical  subjects  afford  one  of  the  best  exercises 
for  the  reasoning  powers.  Mathematical  reasoning  is 
simple,  and  free  from  all  uncertainty;  this  depends 
chiefly  upon  the  following  circumstances, 


FIRST  EXERCISE  OF  THE  REASONING  FACULTIES.       259 

1.  Nothing  is  taken  for  granted  or  on  mere  authority; 
for  its  principles  of  reasoning  are  axioms,  or  self-evident 
truths. 

2.  Its  proper  objects  are  the  relations  of  numbers, 
lines  and  spaces,  things  which  are  cognizable  by  our 
senses,  and  which  can  be  defined  and  measured  with  a 
precision  of  w^hich  the  objects  of  no  other  kinds  of  rea- 
soning are  susceptible. 

The  earliest  conceptions  of  a  child  relate  to  form  and 
number,  and  they  are  the  first  wliich  their  minds  are 
capable  of  viewing  abstractedly:  hence,  the  elements  of 
arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry  should  be  amongst 
the  very  earliest  subjects  of  study,  for  the  purpose  of 
developing  the  reasoning  powers.  Mathematics,  how- 
ever, like  other  first  suVjjects  of  study,  should  be  taught 
progressively,  avoiding  as  much  as  possible  the  formal- 
ities of  technical  demonstration;  and  principles  should 
always  be  taught  in  connection  with  their  applications. 

It  is  a  gross  error  to  suppose  that  a  pupil  will  have 
the  power  of  applying  abstract  principles,  merely  be- 
cause he  is  able  to  demonstrate  the  truth  of  these  prin- 
ciples. A  knowledge  of  Euclid  is  one  thing,  and  the 
employment  of  geometrical  theorems  in  the  business  of 
life  is  another.  The  bringing  of  familiar  facts  and 
abstract  principles  into  apposition  is  not  only  attractive 
to  the  young  mind,  but  also  exercises  the  reasoning 
powers  in  a  way  which  no  other  subject  can  do.  Who 
does  not  remember  the  pleasure  that  he  felt  when  he 
saw  the  doctrine  of  similar  triangles  applied  to  the  find- 
ing of  the  height  of  a  tower  by  means  of  the  shadow  of 
a  stick? 

Although  the  mathematical  sciences  may  form  one  of 


260  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

the  best  initiatory  trainings  of  the  reasoning  powers, 
yet  it  is  comparatively  inefficient  in  giving  that  higher 
finish  and  development  to  the  powers  of  reason.  It  only 
exercises  the  mind  in  appreciating  one  kind  of  evidence, 
— namely,  mathematical  evidence.  Some  other  subject, 
therefore,  should  be  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  develop- 
ing the  reasoning  powers  of  children  in  relation  to  moral 
evidence. 

These  branches  of  knowledge*  may  give  a  false  direc- 
tion to  the  mind,  if  they  are  not  taught  with  caution, 
and  in  connection  with  moral  science.  The  certainty  and 
peculiar  nature  of  mathematical  science  often  inspire 
the  disposition  to  demand  the  same  kind  of  demonstra- 
tion in  other  points.  The  wonderful  extent  to  which  we 
can  trace  and  imitate  the  operations  of  nature,  tempts 
us  to  rest  on  second  causes,  and  forget  that  Power  which 
is  necessary  to  establish  and  maintain  the  laws  which  we 
only  discover.  For  this  purpose,  these  studies  should  not 
only  be  conducted  in  a  religious  spirit,  but  should  be 
accompanied  and  alternated  with  those  which  will  give 
another  direction  to  the  mind.  A  pupil  thus  learns  much 
of  the  nature  of  moral  evidence^  and  moral  relations,  and 
is  accustomed  to  employ  these,  as  well  as  mathematical 
demonstration,  as  a  part  of  his  series  of  thought,  and  as 
a  sufficient  ground  for  his  conclusions. 

On  this  subject  Abercrombie  observes:  "Notwith- 
standing the  high  degree  of  precision  which  thus  dis- 
tinguishes mathematical  reasoning,  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics does  not,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  necessarily 
lead  to  precision  in  other  species  of  reasoning,  and  still 

♦  Woodbridge. 


MATHEMATICAL   AND   MORAL   EVIDENCE.  261 

less  to  correct  investigation  in  physical  or  mental  science.  • 
The  explanation  that  is  given  of  this  fact  seems  to  be 
satisfactory.  The  mathematician  argues  certain  conclu- 
sions from  certain  relations  of  quantity  and  space,  which 
are  ascertained  with  absolute  precision ;  and  these  prem- 
ises are  so  clear,  and  so  free  from  all  extraneous  matter, 
that  their  truth  is  obvious,  or  is  ascertained  without  dif- 
ficulty. By  being  conversant  with  truths  of  this  nature, 
he  does  not  learn  that  kind  of  caution  and  severe  exam- 
ination which  are  required  in  other  sciences  for  enabling 
us  to  judge  whether  the  statements  on  which  we  pro- 
ceed are  true,  and  whether  they  include  the  whole  truth 
which  ought  to  enter  into  the  investigation.  He  thus 
acquires  a  habit  of  too  great  facility  in  the  admission  of 
data  or  premises,  which  is  the  pait  of  every  investiga- 
tion which  the  physical  or  mental  inquirer  scrutinizes 
with  the  most  anxious  care, — and  too  great  confidence 
in  the  mere  force  of  reasoning,  without  adequate  atten- 
tion to  the  previous  processes  of  investigation  on  which 
all  reasoning  must  be  founded.  It  has  been,  accord- 
ingly,  remarked  by  Mr.  Stewart,  and  other  accurate  ob- 
servers of  intellectual  character,  that  mathematicians  are 
apt  to  be  credulous,  in  regard  both  to  opinions  and  to 
matters  of  testimony;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  persons 
who  are  chiefly  conversant  with  uncertain  sciences  ac- 
quire a  kind  of  scepticism  in  regard  to  statements,  which 
is  apt  to  lead  them  into  the  opposite  error." 

The  physical  and  mathematical  sciences  are  full  of 
simple  facts  and  principles  which  are  highly  calculated 
to  cultivate  the  reasoning  powers  of  children.  History, 
too,  if  properly  taught,  may  be  made  a  great  instrument 
in  the  cultivation  of  their  reasoning  powers:  not  that 


262  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

4iistory  which  merely  relates  the  dull,  dry  detail  of  events 
in  their  chronological  order,  and  gives  more  prominence 
to  the  installation  of  a  monarch  than  to  the  discovery  of 
a  physical  law,  or  to  the  advent  of  a  great  man  whose 
soul  is  destined  to  rule  the  world  of  philosophy:  not  that 
history  which  perseveringly  follows  the  blood-stained 
foot-prints  of  warriors  or  the  chicanery  of  crafty,  little- 
souled  statesmen,  or  the  various  ramifications  of  the 
petty  schemes  of  ambitious  autocrats,  who  fret  their  day 
upon  the  stage  of  existence,  then  die,  and  leave  no  sign 
behind  them:  not  that  history,  in  short,  which  ignores 
the  philosophy  of  history; — but  that  history  which  gives 
the  record  of  really  great  events,  which  follows  the  de- 
velopment of  society,  marks  the  relations  of  events  to 
each  other,  and  resolves  them  into  epochs.  The  child 
will  thus  be  taught  to  study  the  nature  of  moral  rela- 
tions and  moral  evidence.  In  the  same  manner  we 
should  like  to  see  language  and  literature  taught. 

In  all  these  subjects,  the  teacher  should  lead  his  pupils 
to  distinguish  between  the  relations  of  facts  and  events 
which  are  merely  incidental,  and  those  that  are  fixed  and 
uniform.  *  From  the  relations  of  familiar  facts  and  events, 
he  will  frequently  rise  to  the  illustration  of  general  prin- 

*  Twenty  years  ago,  when  amateur  teachers  were  few,  the  writer  of 
this  work  gave  lessons  on  tlie  science  of  common  things  (or  what  he  called 
"  science  at  home  ")  to  an  evening  class  of  boys,  varying  from  twelve  to 
fifteen  years  of  age. 

These  lessons  were  illustrated  by  simple  and  striking  experiments, 
juade  with  apparatus  constructed,  for  the  most  part,  out  of  the  ordinary 
articles  of  household  use.  The  subjects  selected  for  instruction  were  not 
only  useful  in  themselves,  having  a  relation  to  the  occupations  of  life,  but 
also  so  simple  as  to  be  within  the  comprehension  of  his  young  pupils, 
llecondite  facts  of  science,  however  useful  in  their  remote  applications, 
were  generally  avoided  when  they  did  not  admit  of  graphic  or  experi- 
mental illustrations. 


"science  at  home."  263 

ciples;  at  other  times,  he  will  descend  from  the  general 
principles  to  the  familiar  facts  or  events  which  illuvstrate 
them.     But  before  children  are'  taught  any  systematic 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  subjects  on  which  these  familiar  lectures 
were  given  :— 

What  is  the  best  kind  of  gravel  for  making  a  path  ?  The  properties  of 
the  lever,  shown  by  a  rod  balanced  upon  the  edge  of  a  book.  The  best 
way  of  making  a  fire.  How  a  candle  burns,  and  why  you  should  not  take 
the  snuif  off  too  close.  Why  the  smoke  rises  in  the  chimney;  and  how  a 
smoking  chimney  may  be,  to  a  certain  extent,  cured.  To  explain  the  use 
and  construction  of  a  wheel-barrow.  How  breathing  and  flame  vitiate 
tlie  air;  and  how  pure  air  should  be  supplied  to  apartments.  Bad  smells 
are  not  only  disagreeable,  but  .hey  carry  with  them  the  seeds  of  disease 
and  death;  how  bad  smells  may  be  prevented:  importance  of  cleanll- 
nesss;  of  drainage;  and  of  good  dwelling-houses.  How  to  sink  a  well. 
How  to  make  a  pump.  How  to  economize  labor.  How  to  econo- 
mize food,  and  to  preserve  common  articles  of  use.  How  to  pre- 
serve health:  you  should  live  upon  plain,  wholesome  food;  you  should 
perform  some  physical  labor;  your  clothes  should  be  adapted  to  the 
season,  and  to  the  state  of  the  weather.  Where  the  water  of  the  river 
Ouse  comes  from,  and  where  it  runs  to.    And  so  on. 

Tliese  lessons  on  common  things  were  productive  of  the  most  satis- 
factory results.  The  boys  were  so  interested  in  the  lessons  that  they 
would  at  any  time  leave  their  games  to  attend  the  class.  Many  of  the 
parents  did  not,  at  first,  quite  understand  what  their  children  had  to 
do  with  science;  but  when  they  found  that  tlie  teacher  liad  been  ex- 
plaining how  to  make  a  fire,  how  to  prevent  the  chimney  from  smok- 
ing, &c.,  they  became  as  much  interested  in  the  lessons  as  their  children 
—and  thus  the  parents  speedily  became  powerful  auxiliaries  in  carrying 
on  the  work  of  education.  It  is  true  that  some  parents  stood  out  for 
a  long  time  against  the  new-fangled  system,— they  merely  wanted  their 
boys  taught  reading,  writing  and  accounts.  Indeed,  a  mother  thrashed 
her  son  for  asserting  that  the  teacher  had  shown  him  how  the  earth 
turned  round  every  twenty-four  hours.  "Hold  your  tongue,  sirrah! 
don't  tell  me  such  lies,"  said  this  prejudiced  mother;  "master  could 
never  put  such  a  falsehood  into  your  head.  Has  not  the  stack-yard 
stood  at  the  back  of  our  house  ever  since  I  was  a  child,  a  girl,  and  a 
married  woman,  and  does  it  not  stand  there  still?"  But  this  argu- 
ment did  not  carry  conviction  lo  the  boy's  mind,  and  as  a  last  resource 
he  was  thrashed  for  his  obstinacy. 

Noble  lords,  and  learned  doctors,  and  newspaper  editors,  have  lately 
discovered  the  importance  of  teaching  the  science  of  common  things 
in  our  schools.  And  some  of  them,  no  doubt,  will  have  their  names 
emblazoned  in  our  blue  books  as  the  great  renovators  of  popular  edu^ 
cation. 


264  ruiLOSOPHY  or  education. 

course  of  stiuly,  tl)ey  should  be  led  to  reason  and  to 
exercise  their  judgment  upon  common  things,  facts,  and 
events. 

"  Thus  the  men 
Whom  nature's  works  can  charm,  with  God  himself 
Hold  converse;  grow  familiar,  day  by  day, 
With  his  conceptions;  act  upon  his  plan; 
And  form  to  his  the  relish  of  their  souls." 

The  relations  of  things  and  events  may  be  viewed  in 
six  distinct  aspects,  viz.,  relations  of  character,  of  degree, 
of  cause  and  effect,  of  connection  and  composition,  of 
analogy,  and  of  law.  We  shall  give  a  few  examples  of 
these  different  kinds  of  relation,  with  the  view  of  illus- 
trating what  is  here  meant. 

(1)  Relations  of  character. 

All  animals  with  four  feet  are  called  quadrupeds: 
then  a  cow  must  be  a  quadruped.  A  fowl  is  not  a 
quadruped — why  ?  All  hot-blooded  animals  breathe 
air:  then  a  horse  must  be  a  hot-blooded  animal.  Trans- 
parent bodies  can  be  seen  through:  then  water  is  a  trans- 
parent body,  because  I  can  see  objects  through  a  glass 
of  water.  Acids  are  sour  to  the  taste,  and  change 
vegetable  blue  colors  to  red:  then  vinegar  must  be  an 
acid,  for  I  am  sure  it  tastes  sour  enough,  and  the  drop 
which  Jane  let  fall  on  her  blue  apron  has  made  it  red. 
All  quadrilateral  figures  have  four  sides:  then  a  sheet 
of  foolscap  paper  has  the  form  of  a  quadrilateral  figure. 
Heavy  substances  sink  in  water:  tlien  chalk  must  be  a 
heavy  substance.  Inflammable  bodies  burn:  then  coal 
must  be  an  inflammable  body.  The  particles  of  a  fluid 
body  readily  move  amongst  themselves:  then  mercury 
must  be  a  fluid  body.     Metals  have  a  peculiar  lustre, 


RELATIONS    OF   THINGS   AND   EVENTS.  265 

called  the  metallic  lustre,  like  gold  and  silver:  then 
copper  and  lead  must  be  metrds.  Artificial  substances 
are  made  by  man:  then  woollen  cloth  must  be  an  arti- 
ficial substance.  A  natural  substance  is  produced  by 
nature,  without  the  aid  of  art:  then  wool  is  a  natural 
substance.  Bodies,  like  the  air,  which  support  flame 
are  called  supporters  of  combustion:  then  chlorine  must 
be  a  supporter  of  combustion,  for  a  candle  burns  in  this 


(2)  Relations  of  degree  and  proportion. 

John's  shoe  is  too  small  for  Henry's  foot;  then  the 
child  will  readily  make  the  deduction — Henry's  foot 
must  be  larger  than  John's.  Our  dog  is  larger  than  the 
cat:  then  a  hole  through  which  the  dog  can  just  go  must 
be  larger  than  a  hole  which  the  cat  can  just  go  through, 
I  cannot  reach  to  the  top  of  the  door:  then  the  door  is 
higher  than  I  am. 

I  can  lift  the  chair,  but  I  cannot  lift  the  table:  then 
the  table  is  heavier  than  the  chair.  James  can  push  the 
table  along  the  floor,  but  he  cannot  carry  it:  then  it  is 
easier,  that  is,  it  requires  less  force,  to  push  the  sofa 
along  the  floor  than  to  carry  it.  I  cannot  lift  that  stone, 
but  I  can  easily  overturn  it:  then  it  requires  less  force 
to  overturn  a  heavy  body,  like  the  stone,  than  it  does  to 
raise  it  up  or  lift  it. 

Thomas  takes  an  hour  to  walk  from  Charing  Cross  to 
Chelsea,  whereas  I  can  walk  over  the  distance  in 
three-quarters  of  an  hour:  therefore  1  walk  faster  than 
Thomas. 

Yesterday  the  water  in  the  kettle  took  three-quarters 
of  an  hour  to  boil,  but  to-day  it  has  only  taken  half  an 


^66  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

hour:  then  it  follows  that  the  fire  is  hotter  to-day  than 
it  was  yesterday.  The  sun  is  longer  above  the  horizon 
in  summer  than  he  is  during  the  winter:  hence  the  sum- 
mer is  hotter  than  the  winter.  Water  never  freezes  at 
Bermuda:  thentlie  climate  of  Bermuda  must  be  warmer 
than  that  of  England. 

A  body  of  a  red  color  can  be  seen  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance than  a  body  of  a  blue  color:  then  red  must  be  a 
brighter  color  than  blue. 

The  shadow  of  that  tree  is  longer  than  the  shadow  of 
that  house:  then  the  tree  must  be  higher  than  the  house. 

A  pound  weight  of  bread  is  larger  in  bulk  than  a 
pound  weight  of  lead:  then  lead  must  be  a  heavier  sub- 
stance than  bread.  Bread  floats  on  water,  but  cheese 
sinks  in  it:  then  cheese  must  be  a  heavier  substance, 
bulk  for  bulk,  than  bread. 

Smoke  rises  in  the  air,  but  silk  paper  falls:  then  smoke 
must  be  a  lighter  substance  than  silk  paper. 

(3)  Rehtions  of  cause  and  effect. 

A  kettle  on  the  fire  will  never  burn  so  long  as  there  is 
water  in  it;  then  the  boiling  water,  or  steam,  must  cany 
oflF  the  heat.  It  is  warmer  during  the  day  wlien  tlie 
sun  shines  than  it  is  during  the  night:  then  the  sun  must 
l)e  tlie  source  of  heat.  A  crow  on  the  top  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral  does  not  look  larger  than  a  sparrow:  then  the 
height  of  St.  Paul's  must  be  very  great.  When  the  fire 
burns  briskly,  light  pieces  of  paper  are  carried  up  the 
chimney:  then  there  must  be  a  current  of  air  rushing  up 
the  chimney.  When  sealing-wax,  glass,  or  brown  paper 
is  rubbed  with  a  dry  piece  of  flannel,  electricity  is  pro- 
duced: then  friction  generates  electricity.     Snow  flakes 


RELATIONS  OF  CAUSE  AND  EFFECT.        267 

fall  in  the  air,  soap-bubbles  rise  in  the  air:  then  snow 
must  be  a  heavier  substance  than  air,  and  soap-bubbles 
must  be  lighter  than  air. 

The  soap-bubble  is  a  heavy  fluid  inflated  with  hot  air: 
then  this  hot  air  must  be  the  thing  that  makes  the  soap- 
bubble  lighter  than  the  surrounding  air.  After  a  little 
time  the  soap-bubble  bursts;  does  it  burst  inwards  or 
outwards?  Inwards — why?  The  soap-bubble  moves 
from  the  shade  to  the  sunshine, — it  bursts, — why  ?  In- 
wards or  outwards  ?  Outwards — why  ?  The  soap  bub- 
ble is  globular  in  its  shape — why  ? 

In  order  to  roast  a  joint  of  meat,  it  is  made  to  turn 
before  the  fire — why  ?  The  meat  is  turned  round  in  order 
that  every  part  of  it  may  be  properly  roasted.  A  register 
stove  throws  out  more  heat  than  a  common  fireplace — 
why  ?  Because  the  register  stove  reflects  the  heat  of  the 
fire,  or,  in  other  words,  it  throws  the  heat  of  the  fire  into 
the  room.  Woollen  clothes  keep  our  bodies  warm  in 
cold  weather — why?  Because  woollen  clothes  prevent 
the  heat  from  passing  out  of  the  body,  or,  in  other 
words,  we  may  say  woollen  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat. 
Nature  has  clothed  the  lower  animals  either  with  wool, 
hair  or  feathers — why  ?  Nature  has  done  for  them  what 
the  reason  of  man  enables  him  to  do  for  himself.  In 
igniting  a  fire,  we  put  shavings  and  wood  at  the  bottom 
of  the  fireplace,  and  the  coals  above  them — why  ?  Pru- 
dent people  take  their  principal  meal  about  the  middle 
of  the  day — why?  Men  work  during  the  day,  and  sleep 
during  the  night — why  ?  When  the  sky  is  cloudy,  we 
are  likely  to  have  rain,  but  when  the  sky  is  clear,  we 
never  have  rain — why?  Ice  feels  cold,  boiling  water 
feels  hot — why  ?      Because  the  ice  is  colder  than  our 


268  PHILOSOPHY   OF    EDUCATION. 

bodies,  and  the  boiling  water  is  warmer.  The  iron  part 
of  a  spade  feels  colder  than  the  wooden  part — why? 
Because  the  iron  conducts,  or  conveys,  the  heat  from  our 
bodies  more  rapidly  than  the  wood.  The  handle  of  a 
coffee-pot  is  usually  made  of  wood — why?  Deal  floors 
are  warmer  than  brick  floors — why  ?  In  frosty  weather, 
the  water  from  the  clouds  falls  in  the  form  of  snow  or 
hail — why  ?  With  us  the  north  wind  is  usually  colder 
than  the  south  wind — why?  At  noon-day,  when  the 
sun  shines,  our  shadows  fall  towards  the  north — why? 
The  snow  falls  upon  the  mountain  tops  more  than  it  does 
in  the  valleys  or  plains— why  ?  The  west  wind  with  us 
is  usually  accompanied  with  rain — why?  Because  the 
west  wind  passes  over  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  therefore 
comes  to  us  charged  with  moisture.  The  cast  wind  is 
dry  and  parching — why?  Thunder  storms  generally 
take  place  at  the  close  of  summer — why  ? 

(4)  Relations  of  connection  and  composition. 

The  earth  on  which  we  live  is  globular:  then  naviga- 
tors should  be  able  to  sail  around  it.  When  a  body  can 
be  seen  a  long  way  off,  it  must  be  very  large:  then 
Winsdor  Castle  must  be  very  large,  for  it  can  be  seen 
from  Richmond  Hill;— then  the  moon  must  be  very 
large,  for  we  know  that  she  is  far,  far  above  the  clouds. 
A  square  whose  side  is  two  feet  may  be  divided  into 
four  small  squares  one  foot  in  the  side:  then  a  square 
which  is  two  feet  in  the  side  must  be  four  times  the  size 
of  a  square  which  is  one  foot  in  the  side.  When  hydro- 
gen gas  burns  in  oxygen,  water  is  formed;  then  water 
must  be  composed  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen.  When 
phosphorus   is  burnt  in  oxygen,  a  white  substance  is 


RELATIONS    OF   ANALOGY.  269 

formed,  called  phosphoric  acid:  then  phosphoric  acid 
must  be  composed  of  phosphorus  and  oxygen.  When 
sulphuric  acid  is  poured  upon  chalk,  carbonic  acid  gas  is 
given  off  :  then  chalk  must  contain  carbonic  acid.  When 
red  lead,  or  oxide  of  lead,  is  heated,  oxygen  gas  is  given 
off,  and  metallic  lead  is  left  behind:  then  red  lead  must 
be  composed  of  lead  and  oxygen.  Drunkards  always 
shorten  their  days:  then  a  drunkard  must  be  guilty  of 
self-murder,  or  suicide. 

(5)  Relatiom  of  analogy. 

A  piece  of  cork  rises  in  water  in  the  same  way  as  a 
balloon  rises  in  the  air,  or  as  smoke  rises  in  the  air:  as 
the  cork  is  lighter  than  the  water,  so  the  balloon  is 
lighter  than  the  air,  bulk  for  bulk.  When  a  piece  of 
lump  sugar  is  placed  in  a  spoonful  of  water,  the  water 
rises  up  the  pores  of  the  sugar,  in  the  same  way  as  water 
rises  up  the  pores  of  a  sponge,  or  as  water  rises  up  a 
fine  tube,  or  between  two  plates  of  glass,  placed  near  to 
each  other.  Water  will  dissolve  sugar,  in  the  same  way 
as  water  will  dissolve  salt,  or  as  spirits  of  wine  will  dis- 
solve camphor.  If  a  soap-bubble  be  twirled  round  just 
before  it  is  thrown  from  the  bowl  of  the  pipe,  it  will 
revolve  and  become  flattened  at  its  poles  by  its  rotation 
on  its  axis:  when  a  mop  is  twirled  round,  it  assumes 
a  somewhat  flattened  shape,  in  the  same  way  as  the 
whirling  motion  of  the  earth  has  caused  its  equatorial 
parts  to  swell  out.  The  steam  from  boiling  water,  by  its 
elastic  force,  sometimes  raises  the  lid  of  the  kettle,  in 
the  same  way  as  the  steam  of  a  steam  engine  raises  the 
piston  or  plug  in  the  cylinder.  A  watch  has  had  a 
maker;  in  like  manner  the  world  hj|s  had  a  Creator,  A^ 


270  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

a  magnet  attracts  iron,  so  somewhat  in  the  same  man- 
ner the  sun  attracts  the  planets  in  the  solar  system.  As 
the  contrary  poles  of  a  magnet  attract  each  other,  so 
bodies  electrified  in  contrary  ways  attract  each  other; 
and  as  like  ]>oles  of  a  magnet  repeal  each  other,  so  bodies 
electrified  in  the  same  way  repeal  each  other.  As  bodies 
in  front  of  a  fire  become  warmer  than  those  at  the  sides, 
so  in  like  manner  places  at  the  equator  more  directly 
under  the  sun's  heat,  become  warmer  than  those  places 
towards  the  poles,  where  the  sun's  heat  glances  obliquely 
upon  them. 

What  qualities  have  sealing-wax,  sulphur,  and  pitch 
in  common  ?  They  are  all  inflammable,  fusible,  brittle 
when  cold,  but  adhesive  when  melted,  and  generate  the 
same  kind  of  electricity  by  friction.  What  qualities 
and  points  of  structure  have  carnivorous  animals  in 
common?  An  iron  hoop  is  elastic, — name  some  other 
bodies  analogous  to  the  hoop  in  this  respect.  A  biillet 
is  a  sphere, — name  some  other  bodies  that  are  spherical. 
What  properties  have  all  bodies  in  common  ?  Weight, 
&c. 

When  a  child  learns,  for  the  first  time,  some  new  prop- 
erty of  a  thing  with  which  he  is  quite  familiar,  he  is 
taken  by  that  sort  of  surprise  which  aifords  him  the 
highest  pleasure,  and  which  forms  one  of  the  most 
powerful  incentives  to  intellectual  activity.  Thus,  for 
example,  a  boy  readily  admits  that  the  air  is  a  transpar- 
ent fluid;  but  when  he  is  shown  that  it  has  weight,  like 
lead,  or  any  other  material  substance,  he  is  taken  by 
surprise — a  surprise  which  is  nearly  allied  to  doubt — 
and  he  is  thereby  prepared  to  give  an  earnest  attention 
to  any  experiments  we  may  make  upon  the  subject. 


RELATIONS    OF   LAW.  271 

(6)  Relations  of  law  depending  on  inductive  reasoning. 

When  iron  is  healed,  its  bulk  is  increased; — when 
water  is  heated,  its  bulk  is  also  increased; — and  the 
same  holds  true  with  respect  to  any  other  substance 
which  has  been  tried :  then  one  general  law  of  heat  is 
that  it  expands  all  bodies.  Sound  travels  over  eleven 
hundred  feet  in  one  second;  twice  eleven  hundred  in 
two  seconds;  thrice  eleven  hundred  feet  in  three  seconds; 
and  so  on:  then,  sound  travels  at  a  uniform  rate. 

Misery,  disease,  and  death  always  follow  drunkenness, 
dissipation,  and  all  such  crimes;  then  vice  and  misery 
are  inseparably  connected.  Liars  and  thieves  are  never 
trusted;  a  truthful  and  honest  person  is  always  es- 
teemed: then  honesty  must  be  the  best  policy. 

A  body,  let  fall  from  a  tower,  falls  sixteen  feet  in  one 
second,  four  times  sixteen  feet  in  two  seconds,  nine  times 
sixteen  feet  in  three  seconds,  and  so  on:  then  the  spaces 
passed  over  by  falling  bodies  increase  as  the  squares  of 
the  times. 

A  ball  struck  along  a  floor  moves  in  a  straight  line; 
the  harder  the  blow  the  further  the  ball  moves;  then 
something  must  cause  the  ball  to  stop — what  is  it?  Is 
it  the  roughness  of  the  floor  (the  friction  of  the  floor), 
or  the  blowing  of  the  air?  If  the  floor  were  smoother 
would  the  ball  move  further?  Would  the  ball  stop  if 
there  were  nothing  tending  to  destroy  its  motion  ?  Let 
us  try, — has  anybody  tried  this  ?  Yes,  my  child,  we 
may  suppose  a  teacher  to  say,  this  has  been  tried,  and  it 
is  found  that  the  more  we  remove  the  resistances  of 
friction  and  the  air,  the  farther  and  farther  the  ball  will 
move:  then,   if   these    resistances    could    be    removed 


272  PHILOSOPHY   OF   EDUCATION. 

altogether,  what  should  we  expect?  Why,  that  the 
ball  would  never  stop,  that  is  to  say,  it  would  move  on 
and  on,  in  a  straight  line  for  ever,  if  it  did  not  meet 
with  any  external  force  or  resistance  to  stop  it. 

(V)  Relations  of  law  depending  on  deductive  reasoning. 

The  force  of  gravity  decreases  as  the  squares  of  the 
distances:  then  a  body  will  be  lighter  at  the  top  of  a 
mountain  than  it  is  at  the  sea  shore:  then  a  pendulum 
will  vibrate  slower  at  the  top  of  a  mountain  than  it  will 
do  at  the  sea  shore.  The  atmosphere  is  an  elastic  fluid: 
then  the  air  at  the  top  of  a  mountain  is  not  so  dense  as 
it  is  on  the  plain.  The  temperature  at  which  water 
boils  increases  with  the  pressure  upon  it:  then  water 
will  boil  at  the  top  of  a  mountain  at  a  less  degree  of 
heat  than  it  would  do  at  the  sea  shore.  Rough  bodies 
radiate,  or  throw  out,  heat  more  rapidly  than  smooth, 
polished  bodies:  then,  other  things  being  the  same,  hot 
water  in  the  kettle  will  become  cold  sooner  than  if  it 
were  in  a  polished  metal  tea-pot.  The  force  of  the 
wind  makes  a  kite  fly:  then  a  kite  must  fly  best  in  windy 
weather.  When  a  flame  is  applied  to  a  mixture  of 
street  gas  and  atmospheric  air,  it  explodes:  a  lighted 
candle  should  never  be  taken  into  a  room  where  tliere  is 
an  escape  of  gas.  The  pressure  of  water  is  in  proportion 
to  its  depth:  then  the  strength  of  embankments  should 
be  in  proportion  to  the  depth  of  the  fluid  which  they 
have  to  sustain:  then,  the  strength  of  beer  barrels  should 
be  in  proportion  to  their  depth.  The  intensity  of  light 
decreases  as  the  squares  of  the  distances  increase:  then 
the  light  of  a  candle  at  twenty  feet  distance  will  be  one- 
fourth  of  what  it  is  at  ten  feet. 


ANALYSIS   OF  REASON lN(i»  273 

The  height  to  which  water  may  be  raised,  by  the  com- 
mon pump,  is  in  proportion  to  the  pressure  of  the  sur- 
rounding air:  then  the  common  pump  will  raise  water 
to  a  greater  height  on  the  plain  than  it  will  do  on  the 
top  of  a  mountain.  The  resistance  of  fluids  to  a  moving 
body  is  in  proportion  to  the  squares  of  their  velocities: 
then  there  must  be  considerable  loss  of  power  when 
railway  carriages  move  with  great  velocities.  The 
resistance  which  friction  presents  to  a  moving  body  is 
the  same  for  all  velocities:  then,  so  far  as  friction  is 
concerned,  there  is  no  loss  of  power  in  moving  railway 
carriages  at  a  high  speed. 

II.  After  the  reasoning  powers  have  been  exercised  in  the  man- 
ner just  described^  the  process  of  reasoning  should  he  analyzed; 
and  this  should  he  done  in  connection  with  simple  examples. 

It  should  be  shown  that  every  process  of  reasoning 
consists  of  two  parts — the  premises  and  the  conclusion 
— the  thing  or  things  which  we  take  for  granted,  or 
assume  to  be  true;  and  the  proposition  which  we  have 
to  establish. 

The  premises  consist  of,  (1)  First  or  intuitive  truths; 
(2)  Propositions  and  principles,  either  taken  for  granted, 
or  which  have  already  been  proved ;  (3)  Certain  facts, 
or  relations  of  facts,  which  we  believe  to  be  authentic, 
and  to  which  our  assumed  principles  are  to  be  in  some 
manner  applied. 

The  conclusion  is  deduced  from  the  application  of  the 
assumed  principles  to  the  facts.  Here  we  have  not  only 
to  assure  ourselves  of  the  correctness  of  the  principles 
assumed,  and  of  the  authenticity  of  the  facts,  but  also  to 
determine  whether  the  principles  are  legitimately  appli- 


2t4  I^HILOSOPIIY    OF   EDITCATION. 

cable  to  the  facts;  for  the  principles  may  be  correct, 
and  the  facts  may  be  authentic,  and  yet  the  reasoning 
may  be  false,  from  the  want  of  a  true  connection  be- 
tween the  principles  and  the  facts. 

We  examine  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  a  process  of 
reasoning  or  argument  by  the  method  of  the  ancient 
syllogism.  Formal  logic  is  of  very  little  use  in  the  dis- 
covery of  truth,  or  even  in  the  first  stages  of  school 
instruction;  yet  knowledge  of  the  syllogism  will  fre- 
quently enable  a  young  man  to  detect  the  sophistry  of 
an  argument,  which  might  otherwise  confound  his  judg- 
ment. An  intelligent  boy  of  thirteen  or  fourteen  years 
of  age  may  readily  understand  the  nature  of  a  syllogism. 

If  I  simply  say  that  "  the  greatest  philosophers  are 
mortal,  for  they  are  but  men,"  1  reason, — I  employ  the 
elements  of  a  syllogism:  thus  we  have, — 

First,  I  employ  the  general  fact, — that  all  men  are 
mortal. 

Second,  the  special  fact,  coming  under  the  general 
class  of  facts  referred  to  this  proposition, — that  philoso- 
phers are  men. 

Third,  the  inference  or  deduction  from  this  connec- 
tion,— that  philosophers  are  mortal. 

The  first  is  called  the  major  proposition,  the  second  the 
minor  proposition,  and  the  third,  the  conclusion,  or  new 
proposition.  Thus,  the  foregoing  reasoning  may  be  put 
in  the  form  of  a  syllogism: — 

Major  proposition,  All  men  are  mortal , 

Minor  propn>titi<m,         PhiloBophers  are  men; 
Conclusion,  Therefore,  philosophers  are  mortal. 

In  order  that  our  conclusions  may  be  valid,  it  is  neces- 
sary not  only  that   the    major  and  minor  propositions 


SYLLOGISTIC    REASONING.  275 

should  be  separately  true,  but  the  minor  proposition 
must  belong  to  the  class  of  facts  included  in  the  major 
proposition. 

Exercise  your  pupils  in  putting  simple  processes  of 
reasoning  (such  as  those  given  under  the  head  of  rela- 
tions in  the  foregoing  article)  into  the  form  of  a  syl- 
logism. Require  them  to  name  the  propositions  or 
principles  taken  for  granted  (are  they  intuitive,  or  have 
they  been  proved  ?) — the  facts  alleged  to  be  true  (upon 
what  evidence  do  they  rest  ?) — the  major  and  minor  pro])- 
ositions  (is  the  former  true  without  exception  ?  does 
the  later  come  under  the  former  ?)  and  so  on. 

Give  instances  of  false  reasoning,  and  call  upon  your 
pupils  to  detect  them.     Let  us  give  a  few  examples. 

Example  1.  Point  out  the  error  in  the  following  pro- 
cess of  reasoning. 

The  diagonals  of  all  parallelograms  bisect  each  other. 

Trapezoids  are  parallelograms ; 

Therefore  the  diagonals  of  trapezoids  bisect  each  other. 

Answer.  Here  the  major  proposition  is  true;  but  the 
minor  proposition  is  not  true,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  not  one 
of  the  class  of  facts  comprehended  by  the  major;  there- 
fore the  conclusion  is  false. 

Example  2.  Point  out  the  error  in  the  following  pro- 
cess of  reasoning: 

All  created  beings  are  mortal, 
Angels  are  created  beings; 
Therefore  angels  are  mortal. 

Answer.  Here,  the  minor  proposition  is  true,  but  the 
major  is  not  true,  for  we  have  no  ground  for  such  a 
belief. 

Example  3.  Where  is  the  error  in  the  following  reason- 
ing? 


276  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

All  human  beings  are  mortal, 
Angels  are  not  human  beings; 
Therefore  angels  are  immortal. 

Answer.  Here,  although  the  conclusion  is  true,  the 
reasoning  is  false:  for  since  the  converse  of  a  proposition 
is  not  always  true,  we  are  not  entitled  to  infer  that  be- 
cause human  beings  are  mortal,  therfore  angels,  which 
are  not  human  beings,  are  not  mortal. 

III.  Some  of  the  most  common  sources  of  false  reasoning 
should  he  pointed  out. 

1.  The  admission  of  alleged  facts  without  a  due  ex- 
amination. 

James,  we  may  suppose  a  master  to  say  to  his  pupil, 
how  do  you  explain  the  fact  that  a  steel  needle  will  float 
upon  water? 

I  don't  know,  sir;  for  steel  being  heavier  than  water, 
I  should  have  thought  that  the  needle  Avould  sink  in 
water.  In  short,  sir,  1  question  the  truth  of  the  alleged 
experiment. 

Master.  That  is  just  what  I  should  have  expected 
from  you  (we  may  suppose  the  master  to  say).  You 
were  quite  right  to  examine  the  truth  of  an  alleged  fact, 
especially  when  it  appears  to  interfere  with  your  pre- 
vious experience,  or  at  variance  with  certain  general 
principles  which  you  know  to  be  true.  At  the  same 
time  I  shall  make  the  experiment,  which  establishes  the 
fact,  and  you  will  then  see,  upon  further  reflection,  that 
the  phenomenon  is  due  to  the  operation  of  a  certain 
principle,  which  counteracts  the  tentlency  which  the 
needle  has  to  sink  in  the  fluid.  IHustrntions  of  this 
kind  may  be  readily  extended  by  the  teacher. 

2.  Mistaking  incidental  connections  for  those  that  are 


SOURCES  OF  FALSE  REASONING.  2Y7 

uniform  and  constant,  or  confounding  accidental  coinci- 
dence with  causation. 

Black  ribbon  being  rubbed  with  the  hand  becomes 
electrified.  A  child,  upon  observing  the  experiment, 
may  naturally  enough  conclude  that  the  color  of  the 
ribbon  is  essential  to  the  result,  imless  he  is  shown,  by 
further  experiments,  that  the  effect  is  independent  of 
the  color,  and  that  the  essential  or  permanent  conditions 
are  that  the  substance  should  be  silk,  and  that  it  should 
be  perfectly  dry. 

"This  spring,  little  James  was  looking  at  a  man  who 
was  mowing  the  grass  before  the  door.  It  had  been 
raining,  and  when  the  sun  shone  the  vapor  began  to  rise 
from  the  grass.  *Does  the  man  mowing  wa^^  the  smoke 
rise  from  the  grass?'  said  the  little  boy.  He  was  not 
laughed  at  for  this  simple  question.  The  man's  mow- 
ing immediately  preceded  the  rising  of  the  vapor;  the 
child  had  never  observed  a  man  mowing  before,  and 
it  was  absolutely  impossible  that  he  could  tell  what 
effects  might  be  produced  by  it;  he  very  naturally  imag- 
ined, that  the  event  which  immediately  preceded  the 
rising  of  the  vapor  was  the  cause  of  its  rise;  the  sun 
was  at  a  distance;  the  scythe  was  near  the  grass.  The 
little  boy  showed  by  the  tone  of  his  inquiry  that  he  was 
in  a  philosophic  state  of  doubt;  had  he  been  ridiculed 
for  his  questions,  had  he  been  told  that  he  talked  non- 
sense, he  would  not  upon  another  occasion  have  told  his 
thoughts,  and  he  certainly  could  not  have  improved  in 
reasoning." 

The  best  way  to  improve  the  judgment  of  children, 
with  respect  to  the  interpretation  of  natural  phenomena, 
is  to  extend  their  knowledge,  and  to  lead  them  to  make 


278  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

experiments,  so  that,  by  the  repetition  of  such  experi- 
ments, they  may  discover  what  circumstances  are  essen- 
tial to  the  production  of  any  given  effects,  and  what  are 
merely  accidental  or  accessory. 

3.  Assuming  the  converse  of  a  proposition  to  be  true. 
In  mathematics  nearly  all  the  converses  of  propositions 

are  true;  but  in  general  physics  and  the  business  of 
life,  this  is  far  from  being  the  case.  Thus,  while  all 
gaseous  bodies  are  elastic,  all  elastic  bodies  are  not 
gaseous.  All  horses  are  quadrupeds;  but  all  quadru- 
peds are  not  horses.  Angels  are  immortal;  but  all  im- 
mortal beings  are  not  angels.  Magnets  attract  iron 
filings;  but  all  bodies  which  attract  iron  filings  are  not 
magnetfs,  for  any  electrified  body  will  attract  iron  filings; 
and  so  on  to  numberless  instances. 

4.  Confounding  a  mere  illustration,  or  an  analogy, 
with  a  demonstration. 

The  relation  of  the  times  and  spaces  of  a  falling  body 
is  commonly  illustrated  by  the  division  of  a  triangle  into 
a  series  of  little  triangles,  &c.;  but  something  more  is 
required  to  raise  the  character  of  this  illustration  to  the 
dignity  of  a  demonstration. 

The  whirling  of  a  stone  is  often  used  to  illustrate  the 
law  of  centrifugal  and  centripetal  forces;  but  this 
scarcely  advances  us  a  single  step  in  the  demonstration 
of  the  great  law  which  regulates  the  planetary  motions. 
Illustrations  are  exceedingly  valuable  in  their  places;  but 
the  pupil  should  never  be  allowed  to  regard  an  illustra- 
tion, or  analogy,  as  a  ground  for  dispensing  with  a  full 
demonstration.  He  should  be  led  to  regard  illustrations 
and  analogies  as  preliminary  steps  to  demonstration. 

5.  In   attaching  erroneous  or  ambiguous  meanings  to 


RlTLES   FOR   THE    PURSUlf    OF    TRUTH.  279 

terms;  or  in  using  terms  in  different  senses  in  the  course 
of  an  argument. 

Much  false  philosophy  is  based  upon  the  ambiguities 
of  language. 

Teachers  should  carefully  rectify  the  verbal  errors  of 
children. 

"  Turkey  is  an  unhealthy  country,"  said  a  friend  of 
mine  on-e  day  to  his  pupils,  "but  this  is  owing  more  to 
the  want  of  precaution  on  the  part  of  the  people,  than  to 
the  badness  of  the  climate."  The  boys  did  not  appear 
fully  to  understand  what  was  said  to  them.  "Pre- 
caution," said  my  friend,  "that  is  a  hard  word  for  you 
to  comprehend, — what  boy  will  tell  me  the  meaning  of 
this  word  ?  "  The  boys  hesitated — they  first  stared  at 
their  master,  and  then  at  each  other,  but  gave  no  further 
sign  of  intelligence, — the  case  was  desperate, — they  had 
got  a  tickler.  My  friend  then,  with  the  view  of  ascer- 
taining the  full  amount  of  their  ignorance,  said: — "  Now 
tell  me  whether  precaution  is  exported  or  imported." 
The  bait  took,  for  the  head  boy  of  the  class  at  once 
shouted  out — "  Exported,  sir  !  " — and,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  the  answer,  went  around  the  class. 

6.  When  we  assume,  in  a  disguised  form,  the  principle 
which  is  to  be  proved. 

This  is  commonly  called  begging  the  question. 

Or  when  we  take  for  granted  any  principle  which 
requires  proof. 

In  proving,  for  example,  that  the  angles  at  the  base 
of  an  isosceles  triangle  are  equal  to  each  other,  if  we 
assume  that  the  angles  on  the  other  side  of  the  base  are 
equal  to  each  other,  we  should  take  for  granted  a  propo- 


280  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

sition  which  is  almost  equivalent  to  the  one  which  is  re- 
quired to  be  proved. 

IV.  Some  general  rules  should  be  occasionally  given  to  chil- 
dren for  the  conduct  of  their  understanding  in  the  pursuit  of 
truth. 

The  following  are  a  few  examples  of  this  kind  : 
Before  commencing  any  inquiry,  strip  your  mind  of 
all  prepossessions,  prejudices,  or  hastily  formed  opinions, 
and  yield  yourself  freely  and  dispassionately  to  the 
force  of  truth..  Earnestly  seek  tho  truth.  Never  argue 
in  support  of  opinions  which  you  do  not  believe;  for 
the  habit  of  false  reasoning  distorts  and  warps  the  soul, 
and  tends  to  confound  all  distinction  of  right  and  wrong: 
let  the  love  of  truth  be  your  ruling  principle.  Remem- 
ber, that  you  are  responsible,  as  well  for  your  opinions 
and  judgments,  as  for  your  actions  and  conduct. 

••  Majestic  truth;  and  where  Truth  deigns  to  come, 
Her  sister  Liberty  will  not  be  far." 

Weigh  well  the  validity  of  your  arguments,  or,  it 
may  be,  the  accuracy  of  your  processes  of  investigation. 
Never  form  hasty  conclusions;  always  ask  yourself,  be- 
fore you  have  come  to  a  final  decision, — Is  there  no 
other  view  of  the  case  which  is  as  feasible  as  the  one 
which  I  have  taken  ? 

See  that  your  axioms,  or  first  truths,  may  be  fairly 
ranked  as  such.  You  may  explain  first  truths,  but  you 
cannot  prove  them. 

Be  watchful  relative  to  the  authenticity  of  facts.  Jii 
the  formation  of  your  opinions,  and  in  the  regulation  of 
your  conduct,  give  a  due  weight  to  all  the  facts  which 
ought  to  influence  your  decision. 


CULTIVATION   OF   WIT  AND   INVENTION.  281 

Take  care  that  your  assumption,  or  it  maybe  your  de- 
finition, does  not  include  the  truth  of  the  proposition 
which  is  to  be  proved.  Remember  that  the  converse  of 
an  established  proposition  may  not  be  true. 

Clearly  distinguish  between  an  illustration  of  a  truth 
and  a  demonstration  of  it.  Bear  in  mind  that  facts 
may  either  illustrate  the  truth  of  a  principle,  or  they 
may  prove  the  truth  of  it.  In  reasoning  from  analogy, 
inquire  whether  there  exist  any  points  of  difference  be- 
tween the  analogous  cases,  which  may  make  the  prin- 
ciple of  reasoning  inapplicable. 

ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  WIT  AND  INVENTION. 

Wit  is  only  a  peculiar  fonn  of  reason:  wit  is  reason 
exercised  in  search  of  grotesque  resemblances  between 
things  apparently  dissimilar.  The  decisions  of  judg- 
ment, which  is  another  form  of  reason,  are  slow — those 
of  wit  are  rapid;  but  the  heavy  thunder  clouds  of  judg- 
ment not  unfrequently  burst  forth  in  the  lightning 
flashes  of  wit.  The  passage  from  the  settled  gravity  of 
philosophy  to  the  electric  gaiety  of  wit,  is  easy  and  not 
unnatural.  Great  philosophers  have  generally  been  re- 
markable for  their  wit.  The  earliest  shoots  of  intel- 
lectual growth  are  witty.  It  would  be  well  if  the 
teacher  would  try  to  enliven  the  dull  routine  of  school 
duties  by  occasional  sallies  of  wit  and  humor.  His  ex- 
ample would  soon  be  followed  by  his  pupils,  for  nothing 
glances  from  mind  to  mind  more  rapidly  than  the  flashes 
of  wit:  such  intellectual  efforts  are  singularly  procre- 
ative— one  witty  idea  soon  doubles  and  triples  itself. 
Wit  and  humor,  like  gleams  of  sunshine,  shed  gladness 
and  joy  over  a  class  of  children.     The  great  object  of 


282  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

Divine  benevolence,  says  the  venerable  Dwight,  is  the 
happiest  of  His  creatures;  and  he  who  promotes  the 
happiness  of  a  little  child  for  half  an  hour,  is  a  fellow- 
worker  with  God. 

Invention,  considered  with  respect  to  reason,  consists 
in  finding  out  new  relations,  or  in  discovering  new  truths 
from,  these  new  relations,  and  in  putting  these  relations 
in  such  an  order  or  form  as  to  show  how  new  truths 
arise  out  of  them. 

If  schoolmasters  would  endeavor  to  foster  the  devel- 
opment of  the  inventive  powers  of  their  pupils,  we  might 
have  fewer  learned,  unproductive  drones,  but  most  cer- 
tainly we  should  have  more  inventors.  We  have  known 
boys  to  make  pulleys  and  other  kinds  of  wheel  machines, 
electrical  machines  and  other  sorts  of  experimental 
apparatus.  Boys  soon  acquire  such  a  passion  for  con- 
struction and  invention  that  they  would  rather  spend 
their  market  half-pence  in  the  purchase  of  the  materials 
for  construction  than  in  sweetmeats. 

In  order  to  cultivate  the  inventive  powers  of  children, 
the  teacher,  after  having  supplied  them  with  facts, 
might  occasionally  throw  out  suggestions  like  the  fol- 
lowing: Could  you  make  anything  of  paper  to  illustrate 
the  construction  of  the  smoke-jack,  or  the  wind-mill, 
&G.?  Can  you  make  a  cone,  &c.,outof  card-paper?  In 
how  many  different  ways  could  you  divide  the  ground 
floor  of  a  house  into  three  equal  apartments?  How 
would  you  join  three  pieces  of  wood  together  so  as  to 
make  a  model  of  the  principal  rafters  of  the  roof  of  a 
house  ?  What  would  be  an  improvement  to  the  common 
snuffers,  &c.,  &c.?     How  would  you  join,  without  glue, 


CULTIVATION    OF   THE    MORAL    FACULTIES.  283 

in  the  simplest  manner,  two  pieces  of  wood  so  as  to 
form  a  T  square  ?     And  so  on. 


CHAP.  VII. 

CULTIVATION  OF  THE  MORAL    FACULTIES. 

Man  was  originally  created  after  the  image  of  his  Crea- 
tor, in  knowledge  and  holiness:  this  was  absolutely 
necessary,  in  order  that  the  creature  should  become  the 
worshipper  of  the  Creator;  for  we  can  only  have  a 
knowledge  of  God  by  the  contemplation  of  His  own 
image  as  it  is  reflected  from  our  souls.  The  fall  of  man 
has  neither  eradicated  any  principle  from  his  soul,  nor 
implanted  any  new  one.  This  disastrous  moral  catas- 
trophe has  destroyed  the  balance  of  the  various  mor.al 
and  intellectual  faculties  by  giving  a  preponderance  to 
what  we  call  the  malevolent  and  animal  propensities  over 
the  intellectual  and  moral  ones.  One  great  object  of 
teaching  should  be  to  restore,  under  the  blessing  of  God, 
the  various  faculties  of  our  nature  to  their  first  condition 
of  purity  and  harmonious  action,  by  stimulating  the 
intellectual  and  benevolent  affections,  by  curbing  the 
undue  activity  of  the  selfish  and  animal  propensities, 
and  by  directing  them  to  their  original  ends  and  objects. 
There  is  no  principle  in  our  nature  which,  under  the 
blessing  of  God,  may  not  be  directed  to  what  is  good. 
In  like  manner,  the  fall  of  man  has  neither  eradicated 
any  law  or  principle  in  physical  nature,  nor  given  birth  to 


284  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

any  new  or  supplemental  principle:  it  merely  destroyed 
the  balance  of  the  various  laws  operating  in  nature,  by 
giving  an  undue  preponderance  to  the  operation  of  cer- 
tain destructive  or  rather  corrective  agencies.  The 
storm  and  the  whirlwind,  which  at  present  frequently 
spread  havoc  and  desolation  over  the  earth,  and  the 
noisome  weeds,  which  frequently  infest  the  soil,  become 
evils  only  from  their  undue  preponderance.  But  the 
providence  of  God,  co-operating  with  the  labor  of  man, 
which  can  make  the  wilderness  to  blossom  as  the  rose, 
which  can  make  the  dark  and  howling  regions  of  the 
earth  become  radiant  with  joy  and  gladness,  can  also 
illuminate  and  purge  those  dark  and  foul  recesses  in  the 
human  soul,  which  have  become  the  seat  of  gloomy  and 
demoniacal  passions.  The  same  beneficial  influence,  co- 
operating with  the  better  nature  of  humanity,  which  can 
convert  whatever  is  apparently  evil  in  the  external  world 
into  its  original  usefulness,  can  also  divert  the  current 
of  our  evil  tendencies  into  a  right  channel.  The  pas- 
sions of  suspicion,  anger,  hatred,  and  revenge,  which 
arm  the  midnight  assassin  with  the  dagger  or  the  poison 
cup,  may  be  legitimately  directed  to  the  detection  of 
error,  to  the  denunciation  of  vice,  or  to  the  punishment 
of  crime.  "  Woe  unto  you,"  says  He  who  had  no  guile, 
"Scribes  and  Pharisees,  hypocrites!  for  ye  are  like 
unto  whited  sepulchres,  which  indeed  appear  beautifully 
outward,  but  are  within  full  of  dead  men's  bones,  and  of 
all  uncleanness."  The  love  of  self,  which,  in  the  form 
of  selfishness,  is  really  the  most  fruitful  source  of  the 
moral  evils  which  at  present  exist  in  the  world,  may 
become  the  mainspring  of  religion; — "  Why  will  ye  die  ! 
O   house   of   Israel."     Pride,   or  the  consciousness   of 


CULTIVATION    OF   THE    MOKAL   FACULTIES.  285 

power,  which  often  leads  us  to  despise  what  is  humble 
and  to  oppress  what  is  weak,  may  shield  us  from  the 
meanness  of  falsehood,  or  raise  us  above  the  contami- 
nation of  folly.  Rashness  and  temerity,  which  often 
result  in  misery  to  ourselves,  and  in  discomfort  to  our 
friends,  may  assume  the  form  of  that  high-toned  moral 
courage  which  is  one  of  the  most  essential  elements  of 
true  greatness.  Ambition,  combined  with  inflexible 
purpose,  which  like  a  giant  in  its  strength  tramples  upon 
whatever  stands  in  its  path,  and  ruthlessly  sacrifices  all 
that  is  great  or  holy  at  its  shrine,  may  lead  us  to  glory 
in  what  is  good,  and  to  esteem  it  a  greater  honor  to  be 
a  door-keeper  in  the  house  of  God  than  to  be  a  dweller 
in  the  tents  of  sin.  The  love  of  approbation,  which  in 
its  vitiated  form  manifests  itself  in  a  vain  and  heartless 
display  of  our  own  powers,  may,  under  proper  guidance, 
stimulate  us  to  merit  the  approbation  of  the  good  and 
great,  and  above  all  to  seek  the  approbation  of  God  and 
our  own  conscience.  The  man  whose  soul  has  been  ex- 
panded by  philosophy  and  sublimated  by  virtue  and  re- 
ligion, possesses  the  same  faculties  as  the  being  whose 
soul  has  been  cramped  and  enervated  by  ignorance,  and 
corrupted  and  debased  by  crime.  What  a  contrast 
between  two  things  possessing  the  same  elements  !  the 
one  is  like  the  sparkling  and  indestructible  diamond, 
radiant  with  all  the  hues  of  heaven's  own  light;  the 
other  is  like  the  charcoal,  black,  crumbling,  shapeless, 
and  worthless.  The  great  business  of  education,  there- 
fore, is  not  to  eradicate  any  principle  of  our  nature,  but 
to  direct  all  our  faculties  towards  their  proper  objects — 
to  foster  what  is  good  and  to  check  the  development  of 
what  may  tend  to  evil. 


286  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

All  the  moral  faculties,  without  exception,  should  be 
trained  from  the  earliest  infancy;  for  they  manifest 
themselves  at  a  much  earlier  period  than  the  higher 
faculties  of  intellect.  *'  Train  a  child,"  says  the  inspired 
writer,  "  in  the  way  in  which  he  should  go,  and  when  he 
is  old  he  will  not  depart  from  it."  The  moral  training 
of  a  child  is,  of  course,  best  conducted  by  his  parents, 
and  especially  by  his  mother.  Home  is  the  proper  sphere 
of  moral  training;  the  earthly  parent  possesses,  in  this 
respect,  the  delegated  authority  of  the  heavenly  Parent; 
and  any  system  of  school  education  which  seeks  to 
ignore  this  heaven-stamped  authority,  must  be  bad,  not 
only  in  its  principle,  but  also  inexpedient  and  errone- 
ous in  its  practice.  But  do  parents  undertake  this 
sacred  duty  ?  or  are  they  always  willing  to  perform  it 
in  an  efficient  manner  ?  If  parents  do  not  (and  we  fear 
that  many  of  them  in  the  present  state  of  society  fall 
far  short  in  this  respect),  is  the  teacher  qualified,  or  is 
he  authorized,  to  undertake  the  sacred  function  ?  The 
question  is  difficult  to  answer  when  put  in  this  com- 
prehensive form.  At  least,  however,  we  may  safely  say 
that  he  may  fairly  endeavor,  to  the  best  of  his  abilities 
and  opportunities,  to  educate  the  child  placed  under  his 
care  in  those  grand  and  essential  truths  of  morality  and 
religion  which  are  recognized  by  the  great  body  of  the 
people  in  this  country.  But  the  teacher  should  always 
endeavor  to  enlist  the  co-operation  of  the  parents,  in 
training  the  moral  faculties  of  their  children.  There  are 
few  parents  so  far  sunk  in  ignorance  and  crime,  as  to 
remain  callously  indifferent  to  the  remonstrance  of  a 
teacher  relative  to  the  future  well-being  of  their  own 
children.     What  parents  would  desire   that  their  own 


CULTIVATION    OF   THE    MORAL   FACULTIES.  287 

moral  degradation  should  be  perpetuated  in  their 
children  ?  The  instnictive  and  disinterested  love  of  the 
parent  concecrates  every  moral  lesson  which  he  may 
give  to  his  offspring.  No  school  teacher  can  possibly 
place  himself  in  the  same  attitude  in  relation  to  his  pupil. 
"There  is  a  love  of  offspring,"  says  the  eloquent  author 
of  the  Natural  History  of  Enthusiasm,  "that  knows  no 
restrictive  reasons;  that  extends  to  any  length  of 
jjersonal  suffering  or  toil;  a  feeling  of  absolute  self-re- 
nunciation, whenever  the  interests  of  children  involve  a 
compromise  of  the  comforts  or  tastes  of  the  parent. 
There  is  a  love  in  children  in  which  self-love  is  drowned; 
a  love,  which  when  combined  with  intelligence  and 
firmness,  sees  through,  and  oasts  aside,  every  pretext  of 
personal  gratification,  and  which  steadily  pursues  the 
highest  and  most  remote  welfare  of  its  object,  with  the 
determination  at  once  of  an  animal  instinct,  and  of  a  well 
considered,  rational  purpose.  There  is  a  species  of  love 
not  liable  to  be  worn  by  time,  or  slackened,  as,  from 
year  to  year,  children  become  less  and  less  dependent 
upon  parental  care: — it  is  a  feeling  which  possesses  the 
energy  of  the  most  vehement  passions,  along  with  the 
calmness  and  appliancy  of  the  gentlest  affections;  a 
feeling  purged,  as  completely  as  any  human  sentiment 
can  be,  of  the  grossness  of  the  earth :  and  which  seems 
to  have  been  conferred  upon  human  nature  as  a  sample 
of  emotions  proper  to  a  higher  sphere." 

The  moral  and  religious  training  of  children  would  be 
greatly  advanced  if  our  clergy  would  frequently  address 
parents  from  the  pulpit,  on  the  best  methods  of  con- 
ducting home  education;  and  also  if  the  teacher,  along 
with  the  clergyman,  would  frequently  visit  the  parents 


288  PHILOSOPHY   OP   EDUCATION. 

of  his  pupils,  with  the  view  of  showing  them  how  to 
proceed  with  the  training  of  their  children  at  home. 


I.  All  moral  training  should  he  based  upon  religion. 

Avaunt,  that  heartless  secular  system  of  training 
which  would  inculcate  moral  precepts  apart  from  the 
sublime  and  soul-inspiring  doctrines  of  revelation!  Be- 
gone, with  your  tape-line  and  scissors,  we  do  not  want 
morality  doled  out  to  us  by  the  measure!  Begone,  thou 
sneering  spirit  of  scepticism,  with  all  your  fine-spun 
moral  theories  of  expediency,  brought  forward  to  sup- 
plant the  sublime  doctrine  of  salvation  by  faith ;  you 
cannot  disguise  your  cloven  foot!  Begone  from  the  land 
of  honest  old  England — Christian  England;  destroy  not 
the  quiet  happiness  which  reigns  in  her  hearths  and 
homes!  Back  to  sceptical  France,  if  you  please;  if  not 
there,  then  back  to  your  native  hell,  and  leave  God-fear- 
ing teachers  to  do  God's  work! 

Away  with  those  false  metaphysics  which  would  per- 
suade us  that  the  idea  of  God  is  too  subtle  for  the  mind 
of  a  child.  Its  heartless  propounders,  no  doubt,  gauge 
the  capabilities  of  the  virgin  soul  of  the  child  by  their 
own  narrow,  sin-scorched  natures.  A  more  expansive 
and  practical  philosophy  tells  us  that  there  is  no  concep- 
tion which  more  easily  assimilates  itself  to  the  infant 
soul,  than  the  idea  of  the  Creator.  The  idea  of  God  is 
directly  manifested  to  us  through  His  Spirit.  The  Spirit 
of  God,  where  is  it?  where  is  it  not?  It  pervades  all 
matter  and  all  space;  but  it  specially  manifests  itself  in 
the  sanctified  human  soul,  in  the  form  of  the  third  per- 
son of  the  glorious  Trinity;  and  we  are  told,  by  Christ, 


VENERATION    AND   FAITH.  289 

that  the  kingdom  of  heaven  will  be  especially  composed 
of  little  children. 

II.  The  teacher  should^  above  all  things,  cultivate  the  senti- 
ments of  veneration  and  faith. 

Children  instinctively  venerate  what  is  great  and  holy; 
and  that  teacher  is  guilty  of  the  grossest  impiety,  who 
does  not  foster  and  develop,  on  all  fitting  occasions,  the 
devotional  affections  of  his  pupils.  There  is  scarcely  any 
subject  of  instruction  without  having  its  religious  bear- 
ing. Besides  the  direct  and  positive  religious  instruction, 
usually  given  in  our  schools,  the  good  teacher  will  avail 
himself  of  every  incidental  opportunity  for  inculcating 
moral  and  religious  duties.  The  wisdom  and  goodness 
of  God,  as  manifested  in  the  works  of  His  hands,  afford 
one  of  the  best  means  for  cultivating  the  devotional 
sentiments  of  children; — the  adaptation  of  the  structure 
of  animals  to  their  instinct,  and  to  their  habits  of  life, — 
the  relations  of  the  great  physical  laws  to  each  other, 
and  to  the  essential  purposes  of  vegetable  and  animal 
life, — the  intimate  connection  between  the  laws  of  the 
physical  and  moral  world, — all  these,  and  many  other  evi- 
dences of  divine  wisdom  and  goodness,  are  highly 
calculated  to  foster  and  develop  the  devotional  senti- 
ments of  children. 

The  love  and  fear  of  God  should  be  made  the  main- 
spring of  all  their  actions.  Children  should  be  taught 
to  do  good,  because  it  pleases  their  Father  which  is  in 
heaven,  and  to  avoid  what  is  evil,  because  it  offends 
Him.  There  is  no  sure  anchor  for  the  human  soul  but 
that  infantine  faith  in  the  love  and  goodness  of  God, 
which  exhibits  itself  in  the  following  forms:  faith  in 
J 


290  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

God's  providence; — faith  in  His  promises,  ps  revealed 
in  His  holy  word; — faith  in  His  Son  Jesus  Christ  for 
salvation; — faith  in  the  moral  government  of  God,  and 
that,  under  this  government,  society  is  advancing  towards 
the  millenium  period,  when  humanity  will  have  achieved 
for  itself  that  intellectual  and  moral  emancipation  from 
the  thraldom  of  ignorance,  and  from  the  slavery  of  sin, 
which  prophets  have  foretold,  and  of  which  inspired 
poets  have  sung. 

Teachers  !  instruct  your  children  how  to  pray.  Won- 
derful arrangement  of  divine  mercy  !  the  tones  of  that 
feeble  child's  voice  ascend  from  earth  to  heaven,  and 
rising  far  beyond  the  visible  universe,  they  reverberate 
through  the  mansions  of  the  blessed  and  reach  the  ear 
of  Divinity;  and  God,  well  pleased  with  that  little  child, 
deigns  to  answer  the  prayer  !  That  prayer  descends  to 
the  lowest  depths  of  hell,  and  makes  the  damned  to 
gnash  their  teeth.  Teachers  !  a  poor,  guilty  child  of 
earth  tells  you  to  teach  your  children  to  pray;  but  the 
admonition  should  not  come  with  less  force  on  account 
of  the  unworthiness  of  the  being  that  gives  it,  inasmuch 
as  you  may  regard  it,  should  you  think  proper,  as  the 
tribute  which  an  unauthorized  layman  pays  to  religion. 

HI.  Teachers  should  constantly  cultivate  the  benevolent  affec- 
tions of  children. 

The  exercise  of  the  benevolent  affections  affords  us 
one  of  the  purest  and  highest  sources  of  pleasure.  Chil- 
dren should  be  shown  that  it  is  their  interest,  as  well  as 
their  duty  to  love  one  another, — to  be  kind,  forbearing, 
and  forgiving  in  their  tempers, — and  to  be  ever  seeking 
to  promote  the  comfort  and   happiness   of  their  com- 


THE    BENEVOLENT    AFFECTIONS.  291 

parnoiis  in  preference  to  their  own  gratification.  Tell 
them  that  when  we  pray  to  God  (in  our  Lord's  prayer) 
to  forgive  us  our  trespasses,  that  same  prayer  bases  the 
petition  on  the  assumed  fact  that  we  forgive  them  that 
trespass  against  us.  But  goodness  of  heart  should  not 
only  proceed  from  virtuous  impulse, — it  should  also  be 
sanctified  by  proper  motives:  children  should  be  taught 
to  love  one  another,  because  love  is  the  fulfilling  of  the 
law, — because  God  is  love — ^because  He  has  manifested 
His  love  in  their  creation,  in  their  preservation,  and  in 
their  redemption. 

The  school-room  should  he  a  happy  place.  That  school  is 
little  better  than  a  pandemonium,  where  the  boys  are 
allowed  to  quarrel  and  fight  with  one  another.  Malice, 
cruelty,  and  all  vindictiveness  of  character,  are  a  perpet- 
ual source  of  misery  to  their  possessor,  as  well  as  to  all 
with  whom  he  comes  in  contact:  on  the  contrary,  gen- 
tleness, forbearance,  and  mercy,  diffuse  joy  and  glad- 
ness throughout  the  whole  school. 

'•  The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strained; 
It  droppetli  as  tlie  gentle  rain  from  heaven 
Upon  the  place  beneath:  it  is  twice  blessed; 
It  blesseth  him  that  gives,  and  him  that  takes! 
'Tis  mightiest  in  the  migiitiest;  it  becomes 
The  throned  monarch  better  than  his  crown. 
His  sceptre  shows  the  force  of  temporal  power, 
The  attribute  to  awe  and  majesty, 
Wherein  doth  sit  the  dread  and  fear  of  kings. 
But  mercy  is  above  this  sceptered  sway, 
It  is  enthroned  in  the  hearts  of  kings. 
It  is  an  attribute  to  God  Himself; 
And  earthly  power  doth  then  show  likest  God's, 
When  mercy  seasons  justice.    Therefore,  Jew, 
Though  justice  be  thy  plea,  consider  this— 
That  in  the  course  of  justice,  none  of  us 
Should  see  salvation !    We  do  pray  for  mercy ; 
And  that  same  prayer  doth  teach  us  all  to  render 
The  deeds  of  mercy." 


292  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

Good-natured  children  are  always  cheerful  and  happy, 
and  they  become  a  source  of  happiness  to  all  their  com- 
panions; but  ill-natured,  spiteful  children  become  the 
plague-spots  of  a  school, — they  make  ev^erybody  about 
them  miserable.  A  happy,  cheerful  disposition  is  not 
only  salutary  as  regards  its  moral  influence,  but  it  is  also 
one  of  the  most  indispensable  conditions  of  intellectual 
progress. 

IV.  The  benevolent  affections^  as  well  as  all  the  other  moral 
faculties,  should  he  cultivated  so  as  to  become  habits  of  action. 

We  have  already  explained  the  importance  of  estab- 
lishing right  habits  of  thought  as  well  as  virtuous  habits 
of  action;  we  have  here  only  further  to  reiterate  that, 
in  order  to  establish  habits  of  virtue  and  religion,  the 
teacher  should  constantly  enforce  the  performance  of  all 
important  duties  at  their  proper  time  and  in  their  fitting 
place;  for  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
neglecting  to  perform  any  duty  at  the  time  assigned 
for  it,  tends  to  weaken  the  habit  which  we  wish  to 
establish. 

V.  The  teacher  must  educate  the  moral  faculties  of  his  pupils 
by  his  example  as  well  as  by  his  precepts. 

Example  bears  the  same  relation  to  moral  science  that 
experiment  does  to  physical  science:  you  cannot  thor- 
oughly teach  abstract  principles  without  giving  them  a 
tangible  form, — "a  local  habitation  and  a  name."  A 
teacher's  life  and  conversation  should,  in  all  respects, 
become  the  living  form  and  embodiment  of  his  precepts. 

But  the  discrepancy  between  our  precepts  and  practice 
haa  assumed  the  form  of  a  common  adage,  "  Do  as  I  say, 


INFLUENCE    OF   EXAMPLE.  293 

and  not  as  I  do."  The  teacher,  of  all  men  in  society, 
should  be  the  most  watchful.  He  necessarily  impresses 
the  leading  features  of  his  own  moral  character  upon  his 
pupils.  What  an  awful  responsibility  this  involves ! 
What  a  moral  power  he  wields  for  good  or  for  evil ! 
Each  grain  of  truth  or  falsehood  which  he  sows  in  the 
field  of  his  labor  will  multiply  itself  inde6nitely  through- 
out eternity. 

No  motion  or  dynamical  action  can  be  lost  in  the 
physical  world;  so  in  like  manner,  in  moral  dynamics, 
the  results  of  our  actions  will  flow  on  through  indefinite 
ages:  what  finite  mind  can  investigate  that  moral  for- 
mula which  shall  express  the  remote  bearings  of  a  single 
example  of  vicious  conduct !  Every  moral  precept  given 
by  a  teacher  to  his  class,  and  every  act  performed  by 
him  before  his  class,  will  live  long  after  he  is  dead,  and 
will  perpetuate  itself  a  thousand-fold  in  distant  ages. 

How  awful  is  the  responsibility  of  the  teacher !  Every 
wrong  word  uttered  by  him,  and  every  improper  act 
done  by  him,  v^ill,  as  regards  its  remote  consequences, 
be  recorded  again  and  again  in  the  doom-book  of  God, 
there  to  stand  as  damning  blots  against  him  till  the 
great  day  of  reckoning  ! 

The  thistledown  from  a  single  thistle,  if  left  unchecked, 
will  soon  spread  the  weed  over  a  whole  district.  A 
single  plague-spot  is  sufficient  to  give  rise  to  the  con- 
tagion which  may  depopulate  a  city.  In  like  manner, 
one  symptom  of  moral  corruption  in  the  personal  char- 
acter of  a  teacher  may  be  the  cause  of  amoral  contagion 
which  shall  spread  far  and  wide,  and  influence  the  des- 
tinies of  future  ages. 

The  teacher  should  bev^are  of  acquiring  any  habits 


294  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

calculated  to  provoke  censorious  remarks.  Children  are 
keenly  alive  to  any  defects  or  imperfections  in  their 
teacher.  It  is  almost  impossible  for  any  teacher  to  ap- 
pear what  he  really  is  not,  before  his  pupils;  his  weak- 
nesses are  sure  to  become  a  matter  of  ridicule,  and  his 
faults  a  subject  of  censure;  and  it  would  be  well  if  the 
evil  stopped  here;  but  it  does  not,  for  children  insen- 
sibly, and  even  in  spite  of  their  better  feelings,  imitate 
the  manners  and  conduct  of  their  superiors  in  knowledge 
and  station:  to  laugh  at  folly  does  not  shield  us  from  its 
attack,  and  to  animadvert  upon  what  is  vicious  is  no 
guarantee  that  we  are  raised  above  its  contamination. 
We  have  sometimes  heard  conversations  like  the  follow- 
ing going  on  amongst  school-boys: — 

"  I  say,  Tom,  what  a  fine  white  choker  teacher  has 
got." 

"  Do  you  think  that  he  washed  his  face  this  morning  ?  " 

"  To  be  sure  he  did,  but  he  has  stuffed  his  nose  into 
his  snuff-box." 

"Don't  you  think,  Jim, that  you  could  give  the  lesson 
as  well  as  master,  if  you  had  that  book  of  his  ?  " 

"  How  slow  master  speaks."  *'  Hold  your  tongue, 
man;  don't  you  see  that  he  is  thinking  what  he'll  say 
next?" 

"I  do  believe  that  master  was  a  drinking  last  night, 
for  he's  half  a  sleep  while  he's  a  talking."  *'  llow"  very 
polite.  Why  don't  you  return  the  nod  of  the  gentle- 
man ?  " 

"  Do  you  think  he  could  do  that  sum  without  the  key, 
which  he  always  peeps  into  when  he's  puzzled  ?  " 

"Don't  you  think  that  master  would  give  a  better 


INFLUENCE    OF   EXAMPLE.  296 

lesson  without  that  bit  of  paper,  which  he's  always  a 
looking  at  ?  " 

"I  wonder  where  he  copied  his  notes  from."  "Do 
you  see  that  there  little  book  that  is  lying  on  his  desk  ? 
Well,  he  took  them  from  that,  for  I  saw  him  while  we 
were  saying  our  tables." 

"  I  don't  care  about  being  late  for  school; — teacher  is 
often  late  himself." 

*'  What  a  raging  passion  master  sometimes  puts  him- 
self in;  I  wonder  if  he  would  like  to  be  struck  with  a 
stick  as  he  sometimes  strikes  me." 

"  How  awfully  long  teacher  makes  the  prayers.  Do 
you  think  that  he  could  pray  without  the  book?  "  "  I 
don't  understand  the  prayers:  they  seem  to  be  written 
for  men  and  women,  and  not  for  little  boys  like  us." 

'*  Teacher  never  called  once  upon  me,  for  all  the  time 
I  was  ill." 

"  Do  you  know  where  teacher  goes  to  of  a  night  ? 
He  goes  to  the  cricketer's  suppers;  I  saw  him  once 
myself  coming  out  of  the  *  White  Hart '  late  of  a 
night." 

Our  moral  duties  may  be  classed  under  three  heads, 
viz.:  (1)  our  duty  to  ourselves;  (2)  our  duty  to  our 
neighbor;  and  (3)  our  duty  to  our  God.  To  treat  this 
subject  adequately,  or  to  give  all  the  rules  and  maxims 
by  which  our  moral  faculties  may  be  cultivated,  in  rela- 
tion to  these  duties,  would  more  properly  belong  to  a 
treatise  on  ethics,  rather  than  to  a  work  on  school  edu- 
cation. There  are,  however,  three  cardinal  school  virtues 
which  demand  the  special  attention  of  every  school- 
master: these  cardinal  school  virtues  are  (1)  Truthful- 
ness; (2)  Honesty;  and  (3)  Humility. 


296  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 


ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OP  TRUTHFULNESS. 

Truthfulness  is  said,  by  Professor  Moseley,  to  be  the 
great  central  pillar  of  the  school-room.  All  cases  of 
falsehood  and  deceit  should  be  promptly  denounced,  and 
even  the  slightest  evidence  of  prevarication,  cunning,  or 
hypocrisy,  should  be  unmasked  and  exposed  to  reproba- 
tion. The  concealment  of  truth  is,  in  many  cases,  as 
great  a  crime  as  a  direct  falsehood.  Boys  too  readily 
fall  into  a  habit  of  adhering  to  the  truth  as  regards  the 
letter,  but  violate  it  as  regards  the  spirit  and  intention. 
In  such  cases,  the  teacher  should  carefully  exj^lain  to 
his  pupils  the  true  character  of  a  lie; — that  they  tell  a 
lie  whenever  they  say  anything,  or  do  anything,  with  the 
intention  of  deceiving  others.  Mr.  A.  entered  his  school 
one  day,  and  found  what  appeared  to  him  to  be  a  piece 
of  cotton  rag  pinned  to  the  coat-tail  of  one  of  the  boys, 
but  which  was,  in  reality,  a  piece  of  flannel.  "  Who 
pinned  that  bit  of  rag  to  this  boy's  coat-tail  ?  "  said  he 
to  his  class;  but  no  boy  had  moral  courage  enough  to 
auswer  him.  He  looked  round  his  class,  and  observed 
the  evidences  of  guilt  in  the  countenance  of  little 
Tommy  Teaser,  who  was  always  the  ringleader  in  all 
sorts  of  spiteful  pranks.  "Now,  Tommy,"  said  Mr.  A., 
"tell  me  the  truth;  did  you  pin  that  cotton  rag  to  tliis 
boy's  coat-tail?"  "Please,  sir,"  answered  Tommy,  "I 
did  not  pin  any  cotton  rag  to  his  coat-tail."  Mr.  A.  was 
not  satisfied — he  felt  confident  that  the  boy  had  told  a 
falsehood;  but  being  always  very  careful  in  making  any 
direct  charge  of  falsehood  without  a  full  evidence  of  the 
fact,  he  patiently  and  cautiously  made  further  inquiries. 
"Please,  sir,"  at  length  said  a  little  boy,  "it  is  a  bit  of 


"iHU   CtjLTlVATlOJi   Oi'  'r&tTHJ'ULKES^.  29^ 

flannel,  not  a  cotton  rag."  "  Oh,  that  is  it,"  said  Mr. 
A.,  "  and  Tommy  Teaser  tried  to  deceive  me  by  appar- 
ently adhering  to  the  letter  of  the  fact,  while  he  lied  in 
spirit  and  intention.  Now,  my  boys,  he  has  not  only 
practised  a  piece  of  deception  upon  rae,  but  he  has  also 
lied  to  himself  by  attempting  to  silence  his  own  con- 
science. Do  always  remember,  my  children,  that  you 
tell  a  lie  when  you  say  or  do  anything  with  the  intention 
to  deceive  others.  I  propose,  as  a  punishment  for  this 
great  crime,  that  Tommy  Teaser  shall  not  be  allowed  to 
enter  the  play-ground  for  the  next  two  days.  Do  you 
not  consider  that  this  punishment  is  only  fit  and  proper  ?  " 
"  Yes,  sir,"  was  the  response  of  the  class. 

We  should  endeavor  to  keep,  as  far  as  possible,  all- 
temptations  to  lying  and  deceit  out  of  a  child's  way. 
The  fear  of  punishment,  the  love  of  gain  and  the  love 
of  approbation  are  the  great  causes  of  lying  in  the 
school-room.  Whenever  temptations  to  lying  are  una- 
voidably incurred,  the  teacher  should  be  more  than  usu- 
ally careful  and  watchful.  When  a  boy,  for  example, 
is  suspected  of  having  committed  a  fault,  it  may  not  be 
wise  to  ask  him  the  direct  question, — "  Did  you  do  this  ?" 
for  in  such  case  a  great  majority  of  timid  boys  would 
most  certainly  tell  a  falsehood  in  order  to  shield  them- 
selves from  punishment:  lying  is  most  frequently  a 
cowardly  act.  Again,  in  the  conducting  of  school  ex- 
aminations, great  care  and  delicacy  should  be  observed 
to  PREVENT  the  boys  from  practising  any  deceit:  here 
the  love  of  approbation  is  the  chief  temptation  to  the 
practice  of  falsehood  or  deceit,  as  the  case  may  be.  The 
teacher  should  frequently  illustrate  the  evil  consequences 
of  lying,  by   stories   and  anecdotes:  the  fable  of  the 


298  PHILOSOPHY   Of   EDUCATION. 

*'  Shepherd  Boy  and  the  Wolf  "  is  an  excellent  example. 
The  teacher  should  in  all  things  be  an  example  to  his 
pupils  in  honesty  and  truthfulness.  He  should  espec- 
ially guard  against  disingenuous  concealment  of  his  own 
ignorance,  or  that  ridiculous  pretension  to  universal 
knowledge  which  too  often  leads  him  to  mystify  what 
he  cannot  explain.  The  best  apology  for  ignorance  is 
the  acknowledgment  of  it;  and  the  highest  practical 
lesson  of  truthfulness  is  the  candid  confession  of  error. 
Nothing  can  be  more  beautiful  than  the  reciprocal  con- 
fidence and  trust  which  subsist  between  the  honest 
teacher  and  his  truth-loving  pupils.  But  if  one  link  in 
the  chain  of  confidence  be  broken,  the  whole  is  des- 
troyed. "  When  once  a  child  detects  you  in  equivoca- 
tion," observes  Miss  Edge  worth,"  you  lose  his  confidence; 
his  incredulity  will  then  be  as  extravagant  as  his  former 
belief  was  gratuitous.  It  is  in  vain  to  expect,  by  the 
most  eloquent  manifestoes,  or  by  the  most  secret 
leagues  offensive  and  defensive,  to  conceal  your  real 
views,  sentiments  and  actions  from  children.  Their 
interest  keeps  their  attention  continually  awake;  not  a 
word,  not  a  look,  in  which  they  are  concerned,  escapes 
them;  they  see,  hear  and  combine  with  sagacious  rapid- 
ity: if  falsehood  be  in  the  wind,  detection  hunts  her  to 
discovery.  Honesty  is  the  best  policy,  must  be  the 
maxim  in  education,  as  well  as  in  all  the  other  affairs  of 
life." 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  conquer  the  hateful  habit  of 
lying  and  prevarication  after  they  have  been  confirmed 
by  long  practice.  So  remarkable  is  the  habit  amongst 
a  large  body  of  the  laboring  population  in  this  country, 
that  they  really  feel  a  pleasure  in  deceiving  people,  and 


THE   CULTIVATION   OF   TRUTHFULNESS.  299 

regard  a  well-told  falsehood  as  the  very  highest  evidence 
of  superior  intellect. 

The  following  graphic  description  of  the  character  of 
the  Irish  laborer  may  be  regarded  as  the  type  of  cun- 
ning and  deceit  which  exists  amongst  the  uneducated 
classes  of  all  countries: — 

"  All  who  are  governed  by  any  species  of  fear  are  dis- 
posed to  equivocation.  Amongst  the  lower  class  of  Irish 
laborers  and  under-tenants^  a  class  of  people  who  are 
much  oppressed,  you  can  scarcely  meet  with  any  man 
who  will  give  you  a  direct  answer  to  the  most  indifferent 
question;  their  whole  ingenuity,  and  they  have  a  great 
deal  of  ingenuity,  is  upon  the  qui  vive  with  you  the 
instant  you  begin  to  speak:  they  either  pretend  not  to 
hear,  that  they  may  gain  time  to  think,  whilst  you  re- 
peat your  question,  or  they  reply  to  you  with  a  fresh 
question  to  draw  out  your  remote  meaning;  for  they, 
judging  by  their  own  habits,  always  think  you  have  a 
remote  meaning,  and  they  never  can  believe  that  your 
words  have  no  intention  to  ensnare;  simplicity  puzzles 
them  much  more  than  wit.  For  instance,  if  you  were  to 
ask  the  most  direct  and  harmless  question,  as,  *  Did  it 
rain  yesterday  ?'  The  first  answer  would  probably  be, 
*Is  it  yesterday  you  mean  ?'  *  Yes,  yesterday  ! '  *No, 
please  your  honor,  I  wasn't  at  the  bog  at  all  yesterday, 
— wasn't  I  after  setting  my  potatoes?'  *  My  good 
friend,  I  don't  know  what  you  mean  about  the  bog;  I 
only  asked  you  whether  it  rained  yesterday  ?'  'Please 
your  honor,  I  couldn't  get  a  car  and  horse  any  way,  to 
draw  home  my  little  straw,  or  I'd  have  the  house 
thatched  long  ago.'  'Cannot  you  give  me  a  plain 
answer  to  this  plain  question — Did  it  rain  yesterday  ?  ' 


300  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

*  Oh  sure,  I  wouldn't  go  tell  your  honor  a  lie  about  the 
matter.  Sorrah  much  it  rained  yesterday  after  twelve 
o'clock,  barring  a  few  showers.' 

"  Oppression  and  terror  necessarily  produce  meanness 
and  deceit  in  all  climates,  and  in  all  ages;  and  wherever 
fear  is  the  governing  motive  of  education,  we  must 
expect  to  find  in  children  a  propensity  to  dissimulation, 
if  not  confirmed  habits  of  falsehood.  Look  at  the  true- 
born  Briton  under  the  government  of  a  tyrannical  peda- 
gogue, and  listen  to  the  language  of  inborn  truth;  in  the 
whining  tone,  in  the  pitiful  evasions,  in  the  stubborn 
falsehoods  which  you  hear  from  the  school-boy,  can  you 
discover  any  of  the  innate  dignity  of  soul  which  is  the 
boasted  national  characteristic?  Look  again;  look  at 
the  same  boy,  in  the  company  of  those  who  inspire  no 
terror;  in  the  company  of  his  school-fellows,  of  his 
friends,  of  his  parents;  would  you  know  him  to  be  the 
same  being?  His  countenance  is  open,  his  attitude 
erect,  his  voice  firm,  his  language  free  and  fluent,  his 
thoughts  are  upon  his  lips,  he  speaks  truth  without 
effort,  without  fear.  Where  individuals  are  oppressed, 
or  where  they  believe  that  they  are  oppressed,  they 
combine  against  their  oppressors,  and  oppose  cunning 
and  falsehood  to  power  and  force;  they  think  them- 
selves released  from  the  compact  of  truth  with  their 
masters,  and  bind  themselves  in  a  strict  league  with 
each  other;  thus  school-boys  hold  no  faith  with  their 
school-masters,  though  they  would  think  it  shameful  to 
be  dishonorable  amongst  one  another." 

ON  THE   CULTIVATION  OF  HONESTY. 

Picking  and  stealing  is  peculiarly  the  besetting  sin  of 


HUMILITY    AND    OBEDIENCE.  301 

the  children  of  the  poor.  When  a  boy  has  once  ac- 
quired this  odious  habit,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  cure 
him  of  it.  The  slightest  evidences  of  dishonesty  should 
be  promptly  checked.  The  teacher  should  frequently 
show,  by  examples,  how  petty  acts  of  pilfering  lead  to 
the  gallows.  He  should  promptly  and  carefully  check 
all  the  incipient  forms  of  dishonesty,  such  as  the  im- 
proper use  of  the  property  of  others;  the  disposition  to 
defraud  others  of  their  just  claim;  and  so  on.  While 
the  teacher  should  never  allow  his  boys  to  think  that  he 
suspects  them  capable  of  dishonesty,  at  the  same  time 
he  should  not  throw  temptation  unnecessarily  in  their 
way.  The  adage,  "  Suspect  a  man,  and  you  make  him  a 
rogue — trust  him,  and  you  make  him  honest,"  should  be 
acted  upon  with  caution.  The  temptations  to  dishonesty 
in  the  school-room  chiefly  originate  in  an  undue  love  of 
property;  in  the  love  of  luxuries;  in  the  want  of  the 
necessaries  of  existence;  and  in  malevolence  of  disposi- 
tion. In  trying  to  keep  children  honest,  the  teacher 
should  look  well  to  the  motives  which  may  be  operating 
to  lead  them  into  the  commission  of  crime,  and  they 
should  be  dealt  with  accordingly. 

HUMILITY  AND  OBEDIENCE. 

The  virtues  of  humility  and  docility  form  the  bright- 
est and  most  lovely  ornaments  in  the  infant  character. 
They  not  only  tend  to  promote  the  order  and  discipline 
of  a  school,  but  they,  at  the  same  time,  induce  that 
happy  condition  of  mind  which  is  most  favorable  for 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  On  the  contrary,  super- 
ciliousness and  conceit  are  not  only  the  most  prolific 
sources  of  disorder  and  disorganization  in  a  school,  but 


302  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

they,  at  the  same  time,  not  unfreqnently  entail  upon 
their  possessors  the  irremediable  doom  of  stationary 
ignorance.  Conceit  is  the  most  enfeebling  of  all  our 
passions,  and  little  hope  can  be  entertained  of  that  boy's 
future  career  in  life,  who  indulges  himself  with  the  fal- 
lacious idea  that  he  has  arrived  at  the  ne  plm  ultra  of 
knowledge. 

I.  In  order  to  foster  a  spirit  of  hutmlity^  the  teacher  should 
show  his  pupils  some  of  the  mighty  results  which  men 
of  science  have  achieved;  he  should  show  what  inscrut- 
able mysteries  there  are  still  in  nature,  which  have 
hitherto  baffled  the  comprehension  of  the  greatest  in- 
tellects; he  should  show  them  that  the  greatest  philoso- 
phers have  always  been  the  most  remarkable  for  humil- 
ity of  character — Newton,  for  example,  wHo  compared 
himself  to  a  little  child  picking  up  pebbles  upon  the  sea- 
shore; he  should  tell  them  of  the  humility  of  Jesus,  who 
left  his  seat  on  the  throne  of  the  universe  to  take  upon 
himself  our  nature,  and  closed  a  life  of  sorrow  by  a 
death  of  agony,  that  he  might  restore  a  guilty  world  to 
the  favor  of  its  offended  God. 

II.  If  the  habit  of  obedience  be  proper  It/  cultivated,  the  child 
will  promptly  and  cheerfully  perform  all  the  exercises  and  dis- 
charge all  duties  assigned  to  hnn  by  his  teacher.  A  due  atten- 
tion to  home  exercises,  a  punctual  attendance  at 
school,  and  a  prompt  attention  to  all  the  class  arrange- 
ments, should  be  constantly  and  strictly  enforced  by 
the  teacher.  Children  should  never  be  allowed  to  fol- 
low their  own  whims  in  preference  to  the  commands  of 
their  master,  nor  should  they  be  permitted  to  depart 
from  the  general  rules  of  the  school  under  any  specious 


Subjects  o¥  iKstkuction.  308 

pretence,  without  the  direct  sanction  of  their  master. 
The  spoilt  child  is  always  seeking  to  escape  from  con- 
trol; and  the  teacher  should  be  very  careful  how  he 
allows  himself  to  he  swayed  by  the  caprices  of  the  little 
tyrant.  The  little  world  of  the  school-room  may  be 
regarded  as  a  type  of  the  great  world,  where  there  must 
be  a  supreme  ruler  and  a  proper  subordination  of  one 
authority  to  another,  and  where  the  duty  of  all  is 
obedience  to  the  claims  of  the  ruler.  Taking  this  aspect 
of  the  matter,  a  properly  organized  school,  therefore, 
may  tend  to  foster  that  spirit  of  obedience  and  content- 
ment which  is  so  intimately  connected  with  national 
peace,  order,  and  prosperity.  If  children  have  not  been 
vitiated  by  bad  examples  or  by  improper  training,  they 
will  have  an  instinctive  faith  in  the  judgment  and  good 
intentions  of  their  teacher;  and,  as  a  necessary  conse- 
quence, they  will  eagerly  receive  his  instructions,  and 
implicitly  obey  his  commands.  But  if  the  teacher  once 
deceives  them  by  practising  upon  their  credulity,  or  if 
he  once  treats  them  with  harshness  or  injustice,  then 
his  power  over  them  is  lost  forever.  Thus,  the  disobedi- 
ence of  children  is  often  the  result  of  improper  manage- 
ment of  the  teacher.  No  good  teacher  will  require  his 
pupils  to  perform  any  important  duty  without  showing 
them  the  reasonableness  of  that  duty;  at  the  same  time, 
it  must  be  observed  that  the  highest  evidence  of  docility 
of  character  is  manifested  where  the  pupils  promptly 
and  implicitly  obey  the  commands  of  their  master. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  SUBJECTS  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  RELA- 
TION TO  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  THE  INTELLECTUAL  AND 
MORAL  FACULTIES. 

Religion   constitutes  the   great    fundamental  basis 


304  PHILOSOPHY    OP    EDUCATION. 

upon  which  all  the  intellectual  and  moral  faculties 
should  be  cultivated. 

Writing  and  Drawing  cultivate  the  perceptive  and 
imitative  faculties,  and,  if  properly  taught,  tend  especially 
to  cultivate  the  taste  and  foster  a  love  of  the  beautiful. 

Mental  Arithmetic  cultivates  the  memory  and  the 
powers  of  conception  and  reasoning.  It  also  especially 
fosters  the  habit  of  promptitude,  presence  of  mind,  and 
mental  activity. 

Arithmetic  cultivates  the  reasoning  powers,  and  in- 
duces habits  of  exactness  and  order. 

Grammar  especially  cultivates  the  memory  and  the 
conceptive  faculties. 

Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  cultivate  the 
reasoning  powers  chiefly  in  relation  to  the  acquisition  of 
necessary  truths;  they  also  cultivate  habits  of  abstraction. 

The  Physical  Sciences  exercise  the  observing  and 
perceptive  faculties,  cultivate  all  the  reasoning  powers 
in  the  highest  degree,  and  lead  us  to  appreciate  the 
force  of  moral  evidence.  If  properly  taught,  they  also 
foster  the  sentiment  of  devotion. 

Poetry  and  Works  of  Fiction  specially  cultivate 
the  imagination,  the  taste,  and  the  moral  feelings. 

Biography,  History,  and  Narratives  specially 
awaken  the  faculty  of  attention,  and  cultivate  the  mem- 
ory. They  also  exercise  the  moral  affections,  and  lead 
to  the  formation  of  habits  of  reflection  and  self-inquiry. 

Music  cultivates  the  taste,  and  refines  and  elevates 
the  moral  feelings. 

Intellectual  and  Moral  Philosophy  cultivate  all 
the  higher  faculties  of  our  nature,  and  induce  habits  of 
abstraction  and  self-examination. 


SYSTEMS   OP   INSTRUCTION.  3 05 


Part  III. 

ON  THE  COMPARATIVE  ADVANTAGES  OF  DIFFERENT 
METHODS  AND  SYSTEMS  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

The  systems  of  instruction,  at  present  in  use,  are — the 
individual  system;  the  collective  system;  the  monitorial 
or  pupil-teacher  system;  and  the  system  of  home  in- 
struction. 

These  systems  may  be  carried  out  on  any  of  the  plans 
or  methods  of  giving  instruction  which  we  have  de- 
scribed. The  most  important  of  these  methods  are  as 
follows:  the  synthetic  and  analytic  methods,  which  may 
be  either  demonstrative  or  dogmatic;  the  interrogative, 
or  catechetical  method;  the  simultaneous  method,  which 
may  be  employed  in  the  ordinary  Ibrm  of  questioning, 
or  in  connection  with  the  elliptical  method;  the  lectur- 
ing method. 

SYSTEMS  OF  INSTRUCnON. 
1.  The  Individual  and  Collective  Methods. 

The  individual  system  may  be  used  with  advantage  in 
small  schools,  especially  if  it  be  occasionally  associated 
with  collective  teaching,  and  in  constant  co-operation 
with  the  system  of  home  instruction.  By  the  individual 
system  of  teaching,  the  master  is  more  fully  able  to 
adapt  his  instruction  to  the  peculiar  capabilities  of  his 
pupils;  at  the  same  time,  it  is  not  so  much  calculated  to 


SQ6  PHILOSOPHY  OF  EDt;cATro>r. 

engage  their  sympathies,  or  to  arouse  the  principle  of 
emulation,  as  collective  teaching.  Individual  teaching 
may  be  conducted  after  any  of  the  leading  methods  or 
forms  of  communicating  knowledge;  that  is  to  say,  it 
may  be  either  synthetic  or  analytic,  demonstrative  or 
dogmatic,  lecturing  or  catechetical,  &c.  If  the  upper 
classes  of  a  school  are  well  supplied  with  good  text- 
books, individual  instruction  becomes  very  effective, 
when  it  is  associated  with  self-instruction.  In  this  case, 
the  master  has  merely  to  give  an  occasional  glance  at 
the  work  of  each  pupil,  and  to  give  him,  time  after 
time,  such  hints  as  may  be  required  to  stimulate  him  in 
proceeding  with  his  work.  Individual  instruction,  as  it 
is  practised  in  most>  of  our  Scottish  schools,  is  merely 
supplemental  to  the  system  of  home  education.  Here 
the  parents  are  the  real  instructors,  and  the  master 
merely  directs,  controls  or  tests  the  progress  of  his 
pupils,  who  are  to  get  up  their  lessons,  tasks,  &c.,  under 
the  parental  authority. 

But,  whatever  may  be  the  advantages  of  individual 
instruction,  it  is  utterly  impracticable,  as  a  general  sys- 
tem, in  the  common  schools  of  this  country.  An  easy 
process  of  arithmetic  will  show  that  a  master  of  a  school 
containing  one  hundred  and  twenty  children  could  not 
give  more  than  five  minutes'  individual  attention  to  each 
boy  in  the  course  of  a  day  !  So  that,  after  all,  we  have 
not  to  consider  the  abstract  question, — whether  the  in- 
dividual or  the  collective  system  is  the  best;  but  which 
of  the  two  systems,  under  existing  circumstances,  is  best 
calculated  to  give  the  greatest  amount  of  instruc- 
tion  TO    THE   GREATEST    NUMBER  IN  A  LIMITED  TIME.      A 

modern  teacher  showm  his  tnct  and  skill  by  multiplying 


SYSTEMS    OF    INSTRUCTION.  307 

and  subdividing  his  power,  and  by  acting  on  numbers  at 
once.  The  great  point  to  be  considered,  in  the  manage- 
ment of  a  large  school,  is,  not  how  you  may  rapidly  ad- 
vance a  few  scholars,  but  how  you  should  classify, 
arrange  and  instruct  a  large  number  of  boys,  differing 
in  age,  knowledge,  and  capacity,  so  as  to  give  the 
greatest  amount  of  instruction  to  them,  as  a  whole.  A 
master  who  is  skilful  in  the  management  of  numbers  and 
who  has  practised  the  collective  system,  may  teach  a 
hundred  boys  at  one  time,  on  certain  subjects,  adapted 
for  gallery  lessons,  as  efficiently  as  he  could  teach  one 
boy:  and  with  a  proper  arrangement  of  classes,  and  a 
large  blackboard,  he  could  give  more  efficient  instruction 
to  a  class  of  twenty  or  thirty  boys,  on  almost  any  sub- 
ject of  education,  than  he  could  give  in  the  same  time 
to  a  single  pupil.  A  good  teacher  always  seeks  to  em- 
ploy his  energies  to  the  greatest  advantage:  he  rarely, 
if  ever,  wastes  his  strength  upon  one  or  two  boys;  what 
he  does  for  the  benefit  of  one  boy,  he  does  in  such  a 
way  as  to  conduce  to  the  benefit  of  his  whole  class 
While  he  teaches  his  own  class,  he,  at  the  same  time 
directs  the  movements  of  half  a  dozen  contiguous  classes 
placed  under  the  management  of  his  monitors  or  pupil 
teachers.  The  motive  power  of  the  master  is  every 
where  performing  available  work:  amid  the  wear  and 
tear  of  his  various  avocations,  he  economizes  the  ex- 
penditure of  his  labor,  by  constantly  keeping  in  view 
the  principle  of  acting  with  the  greatest  efficiency  on 
the  greatest  possible  number.  Like  the  machine  which 
drives  a  hundred  spindles,  weaves  cloth,  blows  fur- 
naces, &c.,  he  never  departs  from  the  great  end  of  his 
labor,  or  for  one  moment  relaxes  his  directing  and  all- 


308  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

controlling  power.  But  all  this  requires  great  skill, 
energy,  decision  and  conscientious  perseverance.  The 
modern  schoolmaster  holds  no  sinecure's  place. 

The  collective  system  of  teaching  should  never  be  era- 
ployed  in  schools  where  the  pupils  are  not  properly 
classified.  The  pupils  to  whom  a  collective  lesson  is 
given,  should  be  nearly  about  the  same  stage  of  mental 
culture. 

II.  Home  Education. 

We  have  already  shown  that  the  master  of  a  family  is 
God's  vicegerent  in  relation  to  the  education  of  all  the 
members  of  his  household;  and  that  every  good  teacher 
will  act  in  co-operation  with  a  proper  system  of  home 
instruction.  The  school  subjects  most  eligible  for  home 
study  are — religious  knowledge,  writing,  drawing,  arith- 
metic, grammar,  geography,  and  reading  lessons.  Those 
subjects  are  best  adapted  for  home  exercises  which  ad- 
mit of  being  exactly  defined,  and  of  being  readily  tested: 
boys  work  the  most  industriously  when  they  can  see  the 
results  of  their  labor.  Hence  it  is  that  drawing  and 
arithmetic  are  the  best  of  all  subjects  for  home  study. 
Drawing  cards  should  be  given  to  the  pupils  to  be  copied 
at  home;  and  exercises  on  arithmetic,  grammar,  geog- 
raphy, &c.,  should  be  given  them  out  of  text-books, 
which  they  should  be  allowed  to  take  home  with  them. 
The  master  should  always  have  a  certain  time  set  ai)art 
for  reviewing  and  correcting  these  home  exercises:  with 
a  ])roper  system  of  management,  a  few  minutes  every 
morning  would  suffice;  and  occasional  hints  should  be, 
time  after  time,  given  to  the  parents,  relative  to  their 
duties  in  carrying  out  the  system  of  home  instruction. 


SYSTEMS    OF   INSTRUCTION.  309 

Such  a  course  would  not  be  without  its  influence  on  the 
character  of  the  parents  themselves. 

We  suggest  the  following,  as  a  routine  of  home  les- 
sons, for  the  upper  classes  in  an  elementary  school: 

Monday  Evening  .  .  .  Drawing  and  Practical  Ge- 
ometry. 

Tuesday         "         ...  Definitions     of     Grammar, 

Grammatical  Exercises, 
and  Map-Drawing. 

Wednesday  "         ...  Arithmetic,  or  Algebra,  and 

Tables. 

Thursday       "         ...  Texts     of      Scripture     and 

Writing. 

Friday  *'         ...  Arithmetic,    Drawing,    and 

Reading  Lessons. 

III.  The  Pupil-Teacher  System. 

We  regard  the  pupil-teacher  system  as  one  of  the 
greatest  improvements  which  have  taken  place  in  modern 
education.  No  school,  whatever  may  be  its  character, 
should  be  without  pupil-teachers.  The  advantages  of 
the  system  are  two-fold:  (1)  It  constitutes  the  best 
nursery  for  schoolmasters.  (2)  It  forms  the  great  ele- 
ment of  the  order  and  organization  of  a  large  school, 
and  gives  power  and  efficiency  to  the  whole  system  of 
instruction. 

The  pupil- teachers  should  be  adequately  paid,  and  the 
master  should  always  set  apart  a  certain  time  for  their 
special  instruction,  not  only  in  the  ordinary  subjects  of 
technical  learning,  but  also  on  the  subject  of  method  as 
applied  to  education.     The  master  should  register  the 


310  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

progress  which  they  make  in  the  different  subjects  of 
instruction,  and  he  should  especially  note  down  the 
manner  in  which  they  teach  their  classes,  in  order  that 
he  may  be  able  to  correct  their  faults,  and  to  stimulate 
and  improve  their  teaching  powers.  The  master  should 
always  base  his  opinion  of  the  teaching  power  of  pupil- 
teachers  upon  the  results  of  their  teaching,  and  not  upon 
any  preconceived  theory.  The  master  should  keep  a 
register  for  recording  these  results.  This  registration 
of  the  results  of  different  methods  of  teaching  will  not 
only  advance  his  own  knowledge  of  method,  but  will 
also  form  the  proper  basis  of  his  criticisms  upon  the 
lessons  given  by  his  pupil-teachers. 

The  pupil-teachers  should  prepare  all  their  lessons, 
and  the  master  should  inspect  their  notes,  before  the 
lessons  are  given  to  the  children. 

IV.  The  Mixed  System. 

Our  best  schools  are  conducted  on  a  mixed  system  of 
instruction,  comprehending  all  the  leading  features  of 
the  particular  systems  just  described.  The  peculiar 
combination  of  the  systems  must  alw^ays  be  determined 
by  the  nature  of  the  school  and  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances connected  with  it.  In  very  large  primary  schools 
where  the  pu])ils  can  never  reach  a  high  standard  of 
technical  attaiimient,  the  system  of  instruction  must 
necessarily  consist  almost  exclusively  of  a  combination 
of  the  collective  and  pupil-teacher  systems;  but  in  a 
small  school,  or  where  the  school  is  provided  with  a 
good  staff  of  pupil- teachers  or  assistant  masters,  the  in- 
dividual and  home  systems  of  instruction  should  have  a 
greater  degree  of  prominence  given  to  them.     The  indi- 


METHODS   OF   INSTRUCTION.  311 

vidual  and  home  systems  should,  if  possible,  be  fre- 
quently employed  in  the  instruction  of  the  advanced 
classes. 

METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

I.    Synthetic  and  Analytic  Methods. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  synthetic  method  is  best  adapted 
for  elementary  instruction.  In  order  to  employ  this 
method  with  efficiency,  the  teacher  should  first  analyze 
the  subject  which  he  is  about  to  teach,  that  is  to  say,  he 
should  separate  it,  or  subdivide  it  into  its  elements  or 
parts,  and  then  he  should  put  these  elements  or  parts 
together  in  such  a  manner  as  to  conduct  the  minds  of 
his  pupils,  step  by  step,  to  the  general  principles  which 
he  wishes  to  inculcate  or  establish.  After  the  teacher 
has  given  a  synthetic  development  of  a  subject,  he  may 
frequently  show,  with  advantage,  how  the  same  subject 
may  be  treated  analytically.  Demonstrative  geometry 
affords  us  some  of  the  best  illustrations  of  these  two 
methods  of  teaching. 

The  analytic  method  of  teaching  is  best  used  in  con- 
nection with  text-books  and  reading-books.  After  the 
pupils  have  read  a  certain  portion  of  a  book,  the  teacher 
may  proceed  to  analyze  the  subject-matter,  by  the  usual 
method  of  interrogation.  At  the  same  time  we  cannot 
help  observing  that  a  really  good  master  will  never 
allow  himself  to  be  fettered  with  text-books,  however 
good  they  may  be  in  themselves.  A  crutch  is  only  use- 
ful to  the  lame  and  halting;  so,  in  like  mg^nner,  a  text- 
book is  only  useful  to  him  who  is  too  feeble  to  depend 
upon  his  own  resources. 


312  PHILOSOPHY   OP   fiDUCATlOl?. 

These  methods  may  be  frequently  used,  with  advan^ 
tage,  in  combination  with  each  other.  The  most  gen- 
eral rules  of  education  have  their  exceptions,  and, 
therefore,  no  teacher  should  blindly  adhere  to  any  gen- 
eral rule. 

EXAMPLES    OF   THE     SYNTHETIC    AND     ANALYTIC   METHODS 
OF  TEACHING. 

Let  US  suppose,  for  example,  that  the  teacher  wishes 
to  explain  to  his  pupils  the  law  of  descending  bodies; 
then  he  would  proceed  in  the  following  manner: — (1)  By 
the  synthetic  method.  If  a  stone  be  let  fall  from  the 
top  of  a  high  tower,  you  will  find  that  it  will  move  more 
and  more  rapidly  as  it  falls.  During  the  first  second  of 
its  descent  it  will  fall  through  the  space  of  sixteen  feet. 
At  the  end  of  the  second  second  of  its  descent  it  will 
have  fallen  through  four  times  sixteen  feet;  here  the 
time  is  two  seconds,  and  the  number  of  feet  is  found  by 
squaring  the  2,  and  multiplying  by  16;  that  is,  the  space, 
in  feet,  is  equal  to  2^^  X  16.  At  the  end  of  the  third 
second  of  its  descent  it  will  have  fallen  through  nine 
times  sixteen  feet;  here  the  time  is  three  seconds,  and 
the  number  of  feet  is  found  by  squaring  the  3  and  multi- 
plying by  16,  that  is,  the  space  in  feet  is  equal  to  3^  X  16. 
And  so  on  to  any  number  of  seconds.  You  see,  then, 
that  the  number  of  feet  passed  over  by  a  falling  body 
in  any  given  number  of  seconds  is  found  by  squaring  the 
number  of  seconds  and  multiplying  that  result  by  16; 
thus,  the  number  of  feet  passed  over  by  a  falling  body 
in  three  seconds  is  equal  to  nine  times  sixteen  feet,  or 
one  hundred  and  forty-four  feet.  (2)  By  the  analytic 
method.     The    space   passed  over   by   a   falling   body 


TWO   POEMS    OP   INTERROGATION.  313 

increases  with  the  square  of  the  time;  that  is  to  say,  the 
space  in  feet  is  equal  to  the  square  of  the  number  of 
seconds  of  the  body's  fall  multiplied  by  16.  Thus,  in 
two  seconds  the  number  of  feet  through  which  the  body 
will  fall  is  equal  to  2  squared  multiplied  by  16,  or  64 
feet;  and  so  on  to  any  other  number  of  seconds. 

Generally  speaking,  the  analytic  form  is  more  concise 
than  the  synthetic. 

II.  Interrogative  or  Catechetical  Method. 

The  interrogative  or  catechetical  method  of  teaching 
may  be  used  for  two  distinct  purposes:  (1)  For  the 
purpose  of  examination,  or  for  simply  testing  the  pro- 
gress of  the  pupils.  (2)  For  the  purpose  of  conveying 
instruction:  when  interrogation  is  employed  in  this 
form,  we  have  called  it  the  method  of  suggestive  in- 
terrogation. This  method  may  be  used  either  for  indi- 
vidual teaching  or  for  collective  teaching:  the  observa- 
tions which  we  have  to  give  on  this  method  are  especially 
applied  to  the  latter. 

The  rules  to  be  observed  in  using  the  method  of  inter- 
rogation in  these  two  forms,  are,  in  some  respects,  very 
different.  But  the  following  rules  are  common  to  both 
forms: 

» 
Principles  and  Rules  common  to  the  two  Forms  op 

Interrogation. 

1.  The  answer  may  be  simultaneous  or  individual, 
according  to  circumstances;  but  the  teacher  should  al- 
ways tell  his  pupils  when  he  requires  them  to  answer 
simultaneously,  or  when  individually.  When  individual 
answers  are  required,  all  the  pupils  who  are  prepared  to 


314  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

answer  the  question  should  hold  up  their  hands;  and 
then  the  master  should  name  the  boy  whom  he  wishes 
to  give  the  answer;  if  the  boy's  answer  be  incorrect,  then 
the  master  must  call  upon  another  boy;  aifd  so  on. 

2.  The  language  used  by  the  teacher  should  be  as 
simple  and  concise  as  possible.  Every  question  put  by 
the  teacher  should  admit  of  a  definite  answer.  The 
questions  should  be  adapted  to  the  capabilities  of  the 
pupils,  both  as  to  the  matter  and  language.  If  a  ques- 
tion is  not  at  once  understood  by  the  pupils,  then  the 
master  must  change  the  form  of  language,  or  he  must 
subdivide  the  question  until  he  is  understood.  Long 
answers  should  never  be  expected  from  young  children; 
on  the  other  hand,  the  more  advanced  boys  should  be 
accustomed  to  express  their  ideas  in  good  language. 
The  teacher  should  not  be  satisfied  with  indefinite  or 
incomplete  answers. 

3.  Never  put  questions  which  simply  require  a  Yes,  or 
No,  for  an  answer. 

4.  The  questions  should  be  given  in  such  an  order  as 
to  form  a  systematic  and  progressive  development  of 
the  subject.  Rambling  questions  should  never  be  put 
until  the  whole  subject  has  been  gone  over. 

5.  Random  answering  should  always  be  checked;  at 
the  same  time,  a«due  amount  of  quickness  in  answering 
should  be  cultivated. 

6.  Children  should  be  accustomed  to  answer  questions 
in  their  own  language. 

7.  The  subject-matter  of  a  question  should  be  some- 
times varied  in  form,  so  as  to  require  a  different  form 
of  language  in  the  answer.  As  the  same  facts  may  be 
viewed  in   different  aspects  and  relations,  the  teacher 


RULES   FOR   EXAMINATION    QUESTIONS.  315 

should  vary  the  form  of  his  questions  so  as  to  embrace 
these  different  aspects  or  relations;  and  he  should  always 
put  those  questions  first  which  take  in  the  most  striking 
or  important  6f  these  facts  or  relations. 

8.  The  pupils  should  be  sometimes  called  upon  to 
question  each  other. 

9.  The  teacher  should  express  his  approbation  when  a 
good  answer  has  been  given  to  a  question  of  more  than 
ordinary  difficulty. 

10.  The  eye  of  the  teacher  should  be  constantly  upon 
all  the  pupils  in  his  class,  and  whenever  he  detects  the 
slightest  symptoms  of  inattention  on  the  part  of  any  of 
them,  he  should  at  once  put  a  question  to  the  individual 
on  the  matter  that  had  just  been  explained. 

11.  Questions  should  be  ^ut  at  the  three  following 
stages  of  instruction: — (1)  at  the  commencement  of  the  lesBon^ 
in  order  to  determine  the  knowledge  of  the  class  on  the 
subject  upon  which  the  lesson  is  to  be  given,  to  excite 
the  curiosity  of  the  pupils,  and  to  enable  the  teacher  to 
adapt  his  instruction  to  their  knowledge  and  capabilities; 
(2)  during  the  lesson,  in  order  to  secure  the  attention  of 
the  pupils,  and  to  make  them  more  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  subject  of  the  lesson;  (3)  after  the  lesson,  in  order 
to  give  a  general  view  of  the  whole  subject,  and  to 
make  the  pupils  fully  masters  of  it. 

Special  Rules  for  Examination  Questions. 

1.  The  questions  should  be  restricted  to  the  subject  of 
examination.  The  questions  should  form  a  strict  analy- 
sis of  the  subject-matter. 

2.  The  question  should  not  contain  any  hint  or  clue  to 
the  answer. 


316  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCA.TION. 

3.  Simultaneous  answers  should  never  be  taken  as 
decided  tests  of  j^rogress. 

4.  Not  the  slightest  assistance  should  be  given  to  the 
pupil  in  framing  his  answer. 

5.  In  order  to  give  the  pupils  a  requisite  amount  of 
confidence,  the  questions  should  be  short  and  easy  at 
first,  and  then,  as  the  examination  advances,  they  should 
be  gradually  increased  in  difficulty.  Herein  lies  the 
secret  tact  of  a  first-rate  examiner. 

Special  Principles  and  Rules  relative  to  Sugges- 
tive Interrogation. 

1.  The  questions  and  observations  of  the  master,  and 
the  answers  given  by  the  pupils,  should  together  form  a 
sort  of  conversational  lecture.  In  order  to  sustain  the 
continuity  of  the  lecture,  the  gradations  or  steps  should 
be  easy  and  natural.  The  teacher  should  endeavor  to 
make  the  pupils  take  an  equal  share  of  the  lecture. 
Every  question,  taken  in  connection  with  the  explana- 
tory remarks  which  may  accompany  it,  should  lead  to, 
or  suggest,  the  answer.  The  teacher  should  tell  his 
pupils  so  much  of  a  thing,  and  leave  them  to  find  out 
the  remainder.  The  question  and  its  answer  should  be 
logically  connected  with  each  other:  (1)  the  question 
may  contain  the  premises — the  answer,  the  conclusion ; 
(2)  tlie  question  may  contain  the  facts — the  answer,  the 
generalization  or  deduction;  (3)  the  question  may  con- 
tain the  ideas — the  answer,  those  ideas  differently  ar- 
ranged or  expressed  in  another  form  of  language. 

2.  The  teacher  should  frequently  preface  his  questions 
with  an  exposition  of  facts  and  principles;  but  the  ques- 
tions themselves  should  always  be  so  framed  as  to  re- 


SUGGESTIVE   INTERROGATION.  3 1*7 

produce   the   facts   and    principles   in  the  pupil's  own 
language. 

3.  The  method  of  suggestive  interrogation  being  es- 
sentially synthetic,  the  system  of  question  should  pro- 
ceed according  to  a  systematic  and  progressive  order  of 
development;  that  is  to  say,  facts  should  precede  gen- 
eral principles,  expositions  should  go  before  abstract 
rules,  the  concrete  should  lead  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
abstract,  the  simple  to  the  complex,  the  familiar  to  the 
unknown,  and  so  on. 

4.  The  teacher  should  never  pass  over  a  question  until 
it  has  been  fully  answered.  If  one  boy  does  not  answer 
it,  then  it  should  be  put  to  another  boy,  and  so  on;  and 
if  the  pupils  fail  in  giving  a  satisfactory  answer,  then 
the  teacher  should  go  over  all  the  previous  steps  again, 
adding  some  fresh  explanations,  so  as  to  lead  them  to 
the  proper  answer.  The  teacher  should  never  directly 
tell  them  the  answer;  he  should  rather  show  them  how 
to  find  it  out.  If  the  answer  given  by  the  pupils  is  in- 
complete or  in  any  way  defective,  and  yet  as  good  as 
the  teacher  might  reasonably  expect  from  them,  then  he 
should  supply  them  with  the  complete  answer,  taking 
care  not  to  alter  the  language  of  the  pupils,  excepting 
where  it  is  absolutely  necessary. 

5.  The  questions  requiring  simultaneous  answers 
should  be  few  and  exceedingly  simple. 

6.  The  teacher  should  put  the  most  difficult  questions 
to  the  more  advanced  boys  in  the  class;  and  thus  make 
them  become  instructors  of  those  who  have  made  less 
progress. 


318  philosophy  of  education. 

Examples  of  Good  and  Bad  Examination  Questions. 

Suppose  the  pupils  of  the  class  to  have  read  the  last 
seven  verses  of  the  twenty-sixth  chapter  of  St.  Matthew's 
Gospel,  and  that  the  master  proceeds  to  give  the  follow- 
ing examination  questions: 

Questions. 

1.  Where  was  Peter  when  the  first  damsel  spoke  to 
him  ? 

2.  What  did  she  say  to  him  ? 

3.  What  was  his  answer  to  her  ? 

4.  Did  he  deny  Jesus  before  all  the  people? 

5.  Where  was  Peter  when  the  second  damsel  spoke  to 
him? 

6.  Did  he  deny  Jesus  again  ? 

I.  How  did  he  deny  Jesus  the  second  time? 

8.  Who  next  charged  Peter? 

9.  What  reason  did  they  give  him  for  believing  that 
he  was  one  of  the  followers  of  Christ  ? 

10.  How  did  Peter  answer  them  ? 

II.  What  took  place  immediately  after  Peter  had 
denied  his  Lord  for  the  third  time  ? 

1 2.  Of  what  did  the  crowing  of  the  cock  remind  Peter  ? 

13.  Why  did  Peter  deny  our  Lord? 

14.  What  sin  did  Peter  commit,  and  what  aggravated 
this  sin  ? 

15.  What  did  Peter  do  when  he  remembered  the 
words  of  Jesus  ? 

16.  What  caused  him  to  weep  bitterly  ? 

17.  Good  people  are  very  sorrowful  when  they  find 
that  they  have  been  led  into  sin.  What  made  Peter 
so  sorrowful? 


EXAMINATION    QUESTIONS.  319 

Remarks  on  the  Questions. 

Nos.  4  and  6  are  bad  questions,  for  they  simply  re- 
quire yes  or  no  for  the  answer.  No.  10  is  not  a  good 
question,  for  it  is  not  exact  enough,  and  the  proper 
answer  to  it  is  too  long.  Nos.  13  and  16  would  require 
some  explanations  to  be  given  by  the  teacher.  No.  14 
should  be  given  in  two  distinct  questions.  No.  17  is 
rather  too  suggestive  for  an  examination  question. 

No.  4  should  be  put  in  the  following  form: — Before 
whom  did  Peter  this  time  deny  Jesus  ?  And  No.  6 
would  be  better  put  as  follows: — What  did  Peter  say  to 
the  maid?  No.  13  might  be  preceded  by  a  question 
something  like  the  following: — What  would  they  have 
done  to  Peter  if  they  had  known  that  he  was  a  follower 
of  Jesus?  And  No.  16  might  be  preceded  by  the  ques- 
tion:— What  reminded  Peter  of  the  falsehood  he  had 
told  ?  How  should  people  feel  when  they  find  that  they 
have  committed  a  great  sin  ?  or.  What  do  people  do 
when  they  feel  very  sorrowful  ?  What  made  Peter  so 
very  sorrowful? 

Questions  on  any  given  portion  of  the  Scriptures  may 
be  put  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  more  or  less  eligible: 
thus  the  text  upon  which  Question  15  is  given  may  be 
broken  into  the  following  forms  of  questions: — When 
did  Peter  go  out  ?  What  did  he  do  after  he  went  out  ? 
What  were  the  words  of  Jesus  which  Peter  remembered  ? 
How^  many  times  did  Peter  deny  his  Lord  before  the 
cock  crew  ?     And  so  on. 

Examples  of  Suggestive  Interrogations. 
No.  1. — On  Peter* 8  Denial  of  our  Lord. 
Supposing  the  same  portion  of  Scripture  to  have  been 


320  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

read,  then  the  following  suggestive  questions  may  be 
given : — 

1.  While  Peter  sat  without  in  the  palace  of  the  high 
priest,  a  damsel  came  unto  him.  (1)  Who  came  unto 
Peter?  (2)  Where  was  Peter  when  the  damsel  came  to 
him  ?     And  so  on. 

2.  This  damsel  had  no  good  intentions  towards  Peter. 
She  wanted  him  to  be  condemned,  and  put  to  death  with 
Jesus.     What  did  she  say  to  Peter  ? 

3.  Peter  had  not  the  boldness  to  tell  the  truth.  He 
was  afraid  to  die  for  his  Lord.  What  answer  did  he 
give  to  the  damsel  ? 

4.  Wishing,  perhaps,  to  escape  further  notice,  he  went 
out  into  the  porch,  but  here  he  met  with  another  tor- 
mentor, for  another  maid  saw  him,  and  said  to  the  peo- 
ple that  thronged  the  porch  of  the  temple,  This  fellow 
was  also  with  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  (1)  To  whom  did  she 
say  this  ?  (2)  Where  was  Peter  when  this  second  charge 
was  nrtide  ?     (3)  What  low  name  did  she  call  Peter  ? 

5.  Peter  got  more  alarmed.  He  lost  all  command  of 
himself,  and  added  sin  unto  sin, — he  not  only  again 
denied  his  Lord,  but  denied  him  with  an  oat\  and  spoke 
slightingly  of  him.  (I)  In  what  manner  did  Peter  this 
time  deny  Jesus  ?  (2)  What  words  did  he  use  in  refer- 
ing  to  Jesus?  (3)  What  sin  did  Peter  here  commit, 
besides  falsehood  ? 

And  so  on  throughout  the  remaining  verses. 

No,  2. —  On  the  Diurnal  Motion  of  the  Earth. 

Suppose  the  pupils  to  have  read  some  single  book  on 
this  subject  (see  Tate's  Astronomy,  page  13);  then  the 
teacher  might  question  them  in  the  following  manner:— 


EXAMPLES   OF   SUGGESTIVE   INTERROGATIONS.        321 

Teacher.  If  I  hold  an  orange  before  a  candle  at  night 
(this  should  actually  be  done),  how  much  of  the  surface 
of  the  orange  will  be  enlightened  ? 

Teacher.    How  much  of  the  surface  will  be  in  the  shade? 

T.  Now,  if  I  turn  the  orange  around,  the  parts  in  the 
shade  will  be  brought  within  the  light.  After  I  have 
turned  the  orange  completely  around,  how  much  of  its 
surface  will  have  been  brought  within  the  light  of  the 
candle  ? 

T.  How  much  of  the  earth's  surface  does  the  sun  en- 
lighten at  one  time  ? 

T.  By  what  means  is  every  part  of  the  earth's  surface 
brought  within  the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun  ? 

P.  The  earth  is  made  to  turn  around  upon  its  axis  in 
the  course  of  every  day. 

T.  (Turning  a  globe  around.)  Now  where  is  the  axis 
in  this  revolving  globe  ?  Is  there  a  real  axis,  or  only  an 
imaginary  one  ? 

P.  The  axis  is  only  imaginary,  and  it  is  the  line  about 
which  the  globe  appears  to  turn. 

T.  What  have  you  now  to  say  respecting  the  axis  of 
the  earth  ? 

P.  That  it  is  the  line  about  which  the  earth  appears 
to  turn. 

T.  What  are  the  poles  upon  the  earth  ? 

P.  The  two  points  where  this  imaginary  axis  meets 
the  earth's  surface. 

T.  On  what  point  is  ray  finger  now  placed  ? 

P.  On  the  North  Pole. 

T.  (Tracing  the  equator  with  his  pointer.)  What  is 
this  line  called,  and  how  is  it  placed  with  respect  to  the 
poles  ? 


322  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

P.  It  is  called  the  equator  and  lies  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  either  of  the  poles. 

T.  How  does  the  equator  divide  the  globe  ? 

P.  Into  two  equal  parts.  One  is  called  the  northern 
hemisphere,  and  the  other  the  southern  hemisphere. 

T.  Upon  what  hemisphere  is  my  hand  now  placed  ? 

P.  The  northern  hemisphere. 

T,  Is  there  any  other  way  in  which  the  changes  of 
day  and  night  might  be  produced  ? 

P.  Yes;  the  sun  might  turn  around  the  earth  in  the 
course  of  a  day. 

T.  If  a  poor  woman  wanted  to  roast  a  joint  of  mutton 
before  the  fire,  what  would  she  do  in  order  to  have 
every  part  equally  roasted  ? 

P.  She  would  tie  a  piece  of  string  to  the  mutton,  and 
make  it  spin  around  before  the  fire. 

T.  Is  there  any  other  way  in  which  this  might  be 
done?     Now  think. 

P.  The  lire  might  be  made  to  turn  around  the  meat. 

T.  But  which  of  these  methods  is  the  better  ? 

P.  The  first  method,  certainly;  because  it  must  be 
far  less  trouble  to  make  the  meat  turn  around  before  the 
fire,  than  to  make  a  machine  for  turning  the  fire  around 
the  meat. 

T.  What  would  you  say  if  a  man  proposed  to  do  this  ? 

P.  That,  although  he  might  show  some  ingenuity, 
yet  he  would  be  a  very  foolish  person. 

T,  Now  it  is  equally  ridiculous  to  suppose  that  the 
sun  turns  around  the  earth.  It  is  too  monstrous  for  us 
to  conceive  it  possible,  that  Almighty  God,  who  is  the 
fountain  of  all  wisdom  and  goodness,  could  effect  any 
of  His  purposes  by  the  agency  of  means  which  it  would 


THE    SIMULTANEOUS    METHOD.  323 

appear  unsuitable,  even  on  the  part  of  his  creatures,  to 
employ. 

III.  The  Simultaneous  Method. 

In  this  method,  all  the  pupils  in  the  class  are  allowed 
to  speak  at  once.  Here,  in  order  to  secure  a  uniformity 
in  the  responses,  the  questions  put  to  the  class  should  be 
very  short  and  simple.  One  great  object  to  be  served 
by  this  form  of  teaching  is  to  give  vitality  and  tone  of 
sympathy  to  the  class.  It  also  economizes  the  time  of 
the  master,  by  enabling  hira  to  direct  his  energies  to 
large  numbers  at  once.  Its  great  defect  is  that  it 
creates  noise  and  confusion  in  the  school,  and  thereby 
interferes  with  the  instruction  that  may  be  going  on  in 
the  other  classes.  It  is  best  practised,  as  a  means  of 
instruction,  in  connection  with  the  elliptical  method  of 
teaching,  and  when  gallery  lessons  are  given  to  four  or 
more  classes  combined. 

The  teacher  must  guard  against  the  following  evils 
connected  with  the  practice  of  this  method: — 

1.  Some  eager,  vain  boys  will  answer  before  the 
others. 

2.  Some  boys  will  defer  their  answer  until  they  catch 
the  answer  of  the  leading  boys  in  the  class. 

3.  Some  boys  will  remain  silent. 

4.  There  will  sometimes  be  a  confusion  in  the  answers, 
especially  when  the  answers  are  too  long. 

By  a  little  tact  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  all  these 
evils  may  be  guarded  against. 

This  method  may  be  advantageously  used  in  the  ex- 
amination of  large  classes,  when  it  is  requisite  that  the 


324  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

examiner  shall  economize  his  time.  We  shall  after- 
wards have  occasion  to  notice  this  form  of  its  application. 

The  plan  of  answering  questions  simultaneously  is 
also  an  excellent  way  of  fixing  simple  and  important 
facts  in  the  memory.  The  name  of  a  great  man,  for 
example,  is  recited  aloud  by  all  the  boys  of  a  class,  they 
then  spell  the  name  aloud,  and  lastly  the  master  writes 
it  upon  the  blackboard.  Thus  all  their  senses  are 
brought  to  bear  on  the  thing  to  be  remembered, — how 
can  they  ever  forget  it? 

There  are  few  subjects  which  may  not  be  taught  with 
tolerable  efficiency,  in  the  largest  schools,  by  a  well- 
organized  method  of  simultaneous  answering. 

The  best  course  for  a  teacher  to  follow  is  to  vary  his 
methods  of  instruction.  After  teaching  for  a  sufficient 
length  of  time  by  the  method  of  suggestive  interroga- 
tion, he  should  indulge  his  pupils  with  a  few  simultane- 
ous answers;  and  then  he  may  close  his  lesson  with 
catechising  two  or  three  boys  singly  before  the  whole 
class,  so  that  all  the  boys,  if  they  are  disposed  to  listen, 
may  derive  some  benefit  from  the  individual  instruction. 

Example  of  Simultaneous  Teaching  after  the  Cat- 
echetical Method. 

Subject  of  the  lesson — Peter's  denial  of  our  Lord. 
Matthew,  chap,  xxvi.,  verse  69. 

Teacher.  Who  came  to  Peter  as  he  sat  without  in  the 
palace  ?  Pupils.  A  damsel.  T.  With  whom  did  she  say 
Peter  was  ?  P.  With  Jesus.  T.  Jesus  is  said  to  be  of 
a  certain  place — what  place  did  the  damsel  name  ? 
P.  Galilee.  T.  Where  is  Galilee?  P.  In  Palestine. 
T.  Point  your  fingers  to  it  on  the  map.     And  so  on. 


elliptical  fokm  op  tbaching.  325 

The  Elliptical  Fokm  of  Teaching. 

The  advantages  of  the  elliptical  form  of  teaching  are 
as  follows: — 

1.  The  ellipsis  does  not  break  upon  the  continuity  of 
the  lesson  or  narrative. 

2.  It  is  generally  more  concise  than  the  usual  forms  of 
question  and  answer. 

3.  It  gives  a  variety  of  form  to  the  lesson,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  relieves  that  censorious-like  character  of 
catechetical  lessons. 

4.  It  engages  the  sympathies  of  the  children,  and 
more  completely  gives  to  the  lesson  the  character  of  a 
common  lecture,  in  which  the  pupils  take  a  part. 

The  following  principles  and  rules  should  be  observed 
in  practising  this  method  of  instruction: — 

1.  The  word  or  words  to  be  supplied  by  the  pupils 
should  be  short  and  easy.  At  the  same  time,  the  word 
to  be  supplied  should  awaken  some  intelligence  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils. 

2.  Ellipses  should  be  associated  with  direct  questions. 

3.  The  word  or  words  to  be  supplied  should  not  be 
doubtful  or  ambiguous.     Take  the  following  examples: — 

(1).  In  comparing  6  and  9,  some  teachers  would  say, 
"  9  is  greater  than — ."  Here  the  word  to  be  supplied 
might  be  any  number  less  than  nine;  and  besides,  the 
boys  would  most  likely  say  six  without  ever  thinking 
about  the  matter.  In  this  case,  it  would  be  better  to 
ask  the  question,  "  Whether  is  6  or  9  the  greater  ?  " 

4.  The  ellipses  should  be  single  words  or  simple 
phrases. 


326  PHILOSOPUY    OF    EDUCATION'. 

5.  Arithmetic,  and  other  subjects  of  this  kind,  should 
be  rarely  taught  by  the  elliptical  method. 

6.  As  a  general  rule,  an  ellipsis  should  be  equivalent 
to  a  good  question.  (See  the  rules  given  in  relation  to 
the  suggestive  method  of  interrogation.)  Take  the 
following  examples: — 

[The  words  intended  to  be  supplied  by  tlie  pupils,  are  printed  in  Italics.] 

(1)  "The  color  of  common  ink  is  J/rf^/c."  Here  this 
is  equivalent  to  the  question — "What  is  the  color  of 
common  ink  ?  " 

(2)  "  Ink  is  Hack.''''  Here  the  word  to  be  supplied  by 
the  pupil  is  doubtful,  for  it  might  be  red^  or  liquid^  or 
any  other  property  of  the  ink. 

(3)  "  When  the  flame  of  a  candle  is  applied  to  hydro- 
gen gas,  it  will  Jwr«."  Here  this  is  equivalent  to  the 
question—"  What  will  take  place  when  the  flame  of  a 
candle  is  applied  to  hydrogen  gas?"  "It  will  burn." 
Now,  in  the  place  of  hurn^  some  boys  might  say,  ignite; 
but  this  variation  in  the  form  of  the  response  would 
be  rather  an  advantage  than  otherwise,  provided  the 
teacher  embraces  the  opportunity  of  explaining  to  his 
pupils  how  different  words  may  be  properly  employed 
to  express  the  same  idea  or  thing. 

Examples  of  the  Elliptical  Method  op  Teaching. 

Subject  of  the  lesson — Peter's  denial  of  our  Lord. 
Matthew,  chap,  xxvi.,  verse  69.  "  Now,  Peter  sat  with- 
out in  i\\Q palace:  and  a  damsel  came  unto  him^  saying. 
Thou  also  was  with  Jesus  of  Galilee.  But  Peter,  being 
afraid  to  tell  the  truth,  denied  before  them  all^  saying, 
I  know  not  what  thou  sayest.     And  when  he   was  gone 


ILLUSTRATIVE   METHOD.  327 

out  of  the  porch,  another  maid  saw  him,  aud  said  unto 
the  people  collected  in  the  porch,  This  fellow  was  also 
with  Jesm  of  Nazareth.  And  Peter,  still  more  afraid, 
again  denied  with  an  oath,  I  do  not  know  the  W2aw,"  that 
is,  he  wickedly  pretended  not  to  know  Jesus.  And  so 
on. 

IV.  The  Constructive  Method. 

This  is  perhaps  the  best  form  of  the  synthetic  method 
of  teaching:  its  fundamental  idea  is  that  of  progressive 
development;  it,  in  fact,  embodies  the  essential  features 
of  all  our  most  approved  modes  of  primary  instruction. 
The  first  elements  of  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  Geometry, 
Mechanism,  Geography,  and  Grammar  may  be  efficiently 
taught  by  this  method. 

V.  Illustrative  Method. 

By  this  method,  we  convey  instruction  to  the  minds 
of  children  by  means  of  pictorial  representations,  dia- 
grams, models,  and  experimental  illustrations,  addressed 
to  the  senses,  or  by  pictures  addressed  to  the  imagina- 
tion. 

Pictures  may  be  either  descriptive  or  historical,  that 
is,  they  may  depict  objects,  animals,  persons,  &c.,  or 
they  may  represent  scenes  and  events.  A  child  reads  a 
picture  as  we  do  a  book.  Good  pictures  of  animals  not 
only  give  the  shape,  color,  and  relative  size  of  the  ani. 
mals,  but  they  also  represent  the  peculiar  habits  of  the 
animals.  A  good  picture  of  a  tiger,  for  example,  shows 
a  child,  at  a  glance,  what  are  its  structure  and  habits, — 
how  it  lives,  on  what  it  lives,  and  in  what  region  of  the 
earth  it  lives.     The  child  reads  the   history   of   great 


328  PHILOSOPHY   OP   EDUCATION. 

events  in  a  good  picture, — the  grand  features  of  the 
events,  the  scenes  amid  which  they  transpired,  the 
characters  of  the  different  actors,  and  so  on,  all  readily 
fix  themselves  in  the  child's  mind.  Picture  lessons  con- 
stitute one  of  our  most  important  means  of  primary 
education.  On  the  subject  of  pictures,  as  addressed  to  the 
imagination,  see  pages  180  and  239. 

In  teaching  (such  subjects  as  geography  and  mecha- 
nism), models,  and  other  material  aids  of  instruction, 
are  most  invaluable. 

Experimental  iUustrations  give  the  matter-of-fact  form 
of  abstract  laws  and  principles. 

VI.  The  Lecturing  Method. 

Strictly  speaking,  a  continuous  style  of  lecturing  is 
not  teaching.  But  when  lecturing  is  accompanied  with, 
or  followed  by,  a  close  course  of  questioning,  it  becomes 
an  efficient  form  of  instruction,  as  applied  to  adults  or 
to  an  educated  class  of  boys.  Simple  conversational  lec- 
tures on  the  science  of  common  and  useful  things,  illus- 
trated by  easy  and  familiar  experiments,  have  con- 
tributed very  much  to  raise  the  standard  of  intelligence 
in  our  elementary  schools.  The  experimental  apparatus 
employed  in  these  lectures  should  be  of  the  most  simple 
kind,  and,  for  the  most  part,  constructed  out  of  the 
common  articles  of  household  use.  Expensive  instru- 
ments should  never  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  ordinary 
teachers,  for  the  skill  requisite  for  using  an  instrument 
is,  generally  speaking,  in  proportion  to  the  delicacy  of 
its  conhtructioi).  It  is  not  desirable,  nor  would  it  be 
expedient,  if  even  it  were  desirable,  that  teachers  should 
become  finished  manipulators:  the  great  facts  and  laws 


The  mixed  Method.  329 

of  physical  science  may  always  be  demonstrated  to 
children  by  the  aid  of  apparatus  which  is  within  the 
reach  of  almost  every  respectable  l;oiiseholder. 

VIT.  Mixed  Method. 

In  order  to  sustain  the  interest  of  children,  the  teacher 
should  vary  his  methods  of  instruction.  The  very  best 
methods,  when  uniformly  followed  for  any  length  of 
time,  become  dull  and  monotonous,  and,  as  a  necessary 
consequence,  the  pupils  cease  to  feel  any  interest  in  the 
lesson.  Variety  in  method,  as  well  as  variety  in  the 
subject-matter,  should  form  an  essential  feature  in  all 
school  instruction.  When  the  pupils  get  tired  with 
questions,  the  master  must  try  ellipses;  and  when  they 
get  tired  with  ellipses,  he  must  have  recourse  to  pictorial 
representa'tions,  or  experimental  illustrations,  accom- 
panied with  a  sort  of  tete-a-tete  lecture:  after  having 
changed  the  methods,  in  this  manner,  he  may  return  to 
his  first  method,  for  it  will  then  have  regained  its 
original  freshness.  The  intelligent  teacher  should  mod- 
ify, arrange,  and  combine  his  methods  so  as  to  form  a 
harmonious  whole  suited  to  the  peculiar  circumstances 
of  his  school. 

On  this  subject,  the  author  of  "  The  Educator's  In- 
struments "  observes: — ''The  evidencing  of  truth  to 
children  lays  a  heavy  and  continuous  tax  upon  the 
teacher's  inventive  faculties;  for  the  same  lesson,  in- 
volving precisely  similar  principles,  however  oft  re- 
peated, needs  the  dress  of  new  language,  must  come 
with  new  illustration  evoked  by  the  various  indications 
of  the  taught;  and  as  nothing  so  tends  to  clarify  and 
intensify  one's  views  as  looking  at  them  through  varied 


330  PHILOSOPHY   OF   EDtJCATlON. 

and  linrmonizino^  media,  so  nothing  will  lead  to  sucli 
just  and  clear  appi-ebension  as  i)lacing  the  same  truth 
repeatedly  before  the  young,  in  language  and  with 
illustration  as  if  spontaneously  called  forth  at  the  mo- 
ment." 

VIII.  On  the  Reproduction  of  Lessons  in  Writing. 

The  advanced  bo}  s  in  a  school  should  be  frequently 
required  to  reproduce  the  lessons  given  to  then  by  the 
master.  This  plan  gives  efficiency  to  all  the  methods 
of  instruction  ordinarily  used  in  our  schools;  it  forms 
an  almost  necessary  adjunct  to  the  method  of  lecturing. 
We  have  already  fully  explained  the  advantages  to  be 
derived  from  this  exercise  (see  page  146);  it  is,  there- 
fore, only  necessary  in  this  place  that  we  should  make 
a  few  remarks  respecting  the  duties  of  the  master,  in 
relation  to  these  written  exercises,  and  point  out  certain 
artifices  whereby  the  amount  of  his  labor  may  be  les- 
sened, without  materially  infringing  upon  the  efficiency 
of  the  plan. 

Alter  the  time  alloted  to  the  reproduction  of  the 
lesson  has  expired,  the  master  should  first  ascertain  the 
number  of  boys  that  have  completed  the  exercise.  He 
should  then  call  upon  about  half  a  dozen  of  these  boys 
taken  at  random,  to  give  their  exercises.  He  then 
assumes  that  these  exercises  may  be  taken  as  average 
specimens  of  the  work  of  the  class,  and  that  the  errors 
found  in  them  will  give  him  a  tolerably  good  idea  of  the 
errors  contained  in  all  of  the  others.  He  rapidly  cor- 
rects the  errors  and  notes  down  the  imperfections  in 
these  specimens.  He  then  writes  the  corrected  passages 
on  the  blackboard,  and  explains  to  the  whole  class  the 


PLANS   FOR   ECONOMIZING   TIME.  331 

nature  of  the  errors  and  blunders  which  have  been  com- 
mitted. 

We  shall  now  consider,  more  fully,  some  of  those 
artifices  which  tend  to  economize  the  time  and  labor  of 
the  master. 

IX.  On  certain  Plans  or  Artifices  for  Economizing 
THE  Time  of  the  Master  in  the  Examination  of 
Classes,  or,  it  may  be,  in  extending  and  thoroughly 
grounding  the  knowledge  which  the  pupils  may 
have  acquired. 

These  plans  or  artifices  should,  of  course,  be  altered 
or  modified  to  suit  the  peculiar  tastes  and  capabilities  of 
the  master.  The  following  examples  are  given  as  illus- 
trations of  the  main  features  which  ought  to  characterize 
all  such  plans  or  artifices;  these  main  features  are: 

(1)  The  master  should  act  upon  the  whole  of  the  pupils 
of  his  class,  at  once,  rather  than  on  indwidnals. 

(2)  He  should  get  all  of  his  pupils  to  act  perfectly  in 
concert,  or  exactly  together. 

1.  An  Examination  Lesson  on  Spelling. 

After  requesting,  in  a  cheerful  tone  of  voice,  all  the 
boys  in  the  class  to  prepare  their  slates  and  pencils  for 
writing  down  the  words  which  he  is  about  to  give  them, 
he  recites  the  words  slowly  and  distinctly.  As  he  dic- 
tates, word  after  word,  the  pupils  write  them  on  their 
slates,  in  the  same  order.  When  the  words  have  been 
all  written,  he  calls  upon  the  whole  class  to  spell  the 
words  simultaneously,  exactly  as  they  are  written  on 
their  slates,  leaving  a  moment's  pause  between  every 
two  consecutive  words  to  allow  those  who  are  wrong  an 


332  PHILOiOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

opportunity  of  placing  a  mark  a  teach  misspelt  word. 
The  teacher  then  requests  the  boys  to  count  the  number 
of  their  errors,  and  to  report  the  same  to  him.  He  next 
gives  a  rapid  glanc«  at  the  slates,  to  see  that  all  is 
right,  looking  with  more  care  at  the  slates  of  those  boys 
in  whose  honesty  he  has  not  the  fullest  trust.  The 
master  will  now  be  able  to  register  the  average  attain- 
ments of  the  class.  But  if  instruction  be  specially  his 
object,  he  will  write  upon  the  blackboard  all  those 
words  which  have  been  misspelled,  giving,  at  the  same 
time,  such  remarks  as  he  may  deem  necessary,  relative 
to  the  rules  of  spelling,  or  the  quality  of  the  writing. 

2.  An  Examination  Lesson  on  Arithmetic. 

The  teacher  or  examiner  recites,  in  a  distinct  tone  of 
voice,  the  arithmetical  problem  which  he  requires  the 
class  to  solve.  After  a  sufficient  time  has  been  allowed 
them  for  working  out  the  question,  he  calls  upon  those 
boys  who  have  finished  to  hold  up  their  hands,  or,  it 
may  be,  to  stand.  He  then  says — "  Let  all  those  boys 
hold  up  their  hands,  who  have  the  following  answer;" 
be  then  reads  out  the  answer,  and  at  once  sees  the 
number  of  boys  who  have  done  the  question  correctly. 
He  then  desires  the  boys  who  have  not  worked  the 
question  correctly,  to  mark  the  erroneous  figures  in  their 
answers.  A  rapid  glance  at  a  few  slates  will  generally 
be  sufficient  to  act  as  a  check  upon  any  unfair  dealing 
on  the  part  of  the  boys.  In  some  cases,  it  may  be  ad- 
visable to  inspect  the  slates  of  those  boys  who  had  not 
finished  the  question.  But  the  teacher  should  be  care- 
ful how  he  gives  any  countenance  to  idleness,  or  how  he 
wastes  his  energies  on  individuals.     If  instruction  be  a 


PREPARATION    OF   LESSONS.  333 

special  object,  the  problem  should  be  done  upon  the 
blackboard,  accompanied  with  an  exposition  of  prin- 
ciples, &c.  The  teacher  should  frequently  call  upon  the 
more  advanced  boys  to  give  this  exposition. 

Respective  Advantages  of  the  three  great  Methods  of  Exam- 
ination. 

There  are  three  great  methods  of  examination,  viz.: 
the  simultaneous,  the  individual,  and  the  method  of 
written  answers. 

1.  The  simultaneous  method  of  examination  awakens  a  gen- 
eral interest,  and  takes  up  little  time;  but  we  cannot 
easily  arrive  at  a  correct  estimate  of  the  attainments  of 
the  class  by  the  exclusive  use  of  this  method. 

2.  The  individual  method  of  examination  is  more  rigid  and 
more  to  be  relied  on  than  the  simultaneous  method;  but 
it  takes  up  more  time,  and  leaves  the  great  body  of  the 
class  comparatively  unemployed  while  each  individual 
is  being  examined. 

3.  The  method  of  wrHten  answers  is  the  most  exact  and 
searching  of  all  the  methods,  while,  at  the  same  time,  it 
keeps  all  the  pupils  engaged;  but  it  is  long  and  tedi- 
ous as  regards  both  the  writing  of  the  papers  and  the 
inspection  of  them. 

A  judicious  examiner  will  not  fail  to  avail  himself  of 
all  the  advantages  arising  out  of  the  use  of  the  three 
methods. 

X.  On  the  Preparation  of  Lessons. 

No  teacher  should  give  a  lesson  until  he  has  made 
himself  thoroughly  master  of  the  subject.  He  should 
also  fix  in  his  own  mind  how  he  should  treat  it,  both  as 


334  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

to  aiTangement  and  method.  He  should,  generally, 
draw  out  a  sketch  of  the  lesson  in  the  form  of  notes,  but 
he  should  neA^er  refer  to  these  notes  while  he  is  giving 
the  lesson;  he  ought  rather  to  have  these  notes  fixed  in 
his  mind  before  he  begins  the  lesson.  His  notes  sliould 
be  concise  and  methodical;  they  should  form  leading 
points  in  the  lesson,  with  which  he  should  associate  the 
leading  train  of  ideas  which  are  to  constitute  the  real 
knowledge  to  be  given  to  the  pupils.  He  should  not 
confine  himself  to  any  set  form  of  language;  and  his 
questions,  as  a  general  rule,  should  be  framed  at  the 
time  of  asking  them.  No  teacher  should  become  a  slave 
to  books  or  notes  while  he  is  giving  a  lesson;  books  and 
notes  should  be  the  passive  tools  of  the  master — not  he 
the  subservient  slave  of  them. 

The  master  should  carefully  revise  the  notes  of  his 
pupil-teachers;  and  he  should  never  allow  the  pupil- 
teachers  to  give  a  lesson  without  they  are  fully  prepared 
to  give  it  with  efficiency.  He  should  always  place  be- 
fore them  a  high  standard  of  teaching  power.  Every 
pupil-teacher  should  be  provided  with  a  book  for  enter- 
ing down  his  notes  of  lessons. 

The  form  of  the  notes  of  lessons  must  necessarily  vary 
with  the  nature  of  the  subject,  and  the  age  of  the  boys 
to  whom  the  lesson  is  to  be  given.  But  there  are,  no 
doubt,  certain  general  principles  of  arrangement  which 
are  common  to  all  subjects.  The  following  are  the  notes 
of  a  lesson  on  ink,  supposed  to  be  given  to  the  upper 
class: — 

Notes  of  a  Lesson. 

Subject — Common  Ink. 
rKOPKiiTiKS:— Liquid,  black,  and  slightly  adhesive. 


PERIODICAL   EXAMINATION   OF   CLASSES.  335 

Use.— Used  for  writing  on  white  paper.  The  use  depends  upon  the  prop- 
erties—why liquid— why  black— why  slightly  adhesive  ?  What  do  we 
write  upon  the  blackboard  with  ?— Why  we  cannot  write  upon  white 
paper  with  white  chalk,  &c. 

How  MADE.— Experiment.  To  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  (green  cop- 
peias)  add  a  solution  of  nut  galls— a  black  precipitate  is  formed. 
The  addition  of  some  gum  helps  to  keep  this  black  substance  from 
falling  to  the  bottom,  and  also  to  make  the  ink  adhere  to  the  paper. 

How  T(i  TAKE  INK  STAINS  OUT.— Experiment.  To  the  black  liquid 
formed  in  the  last  experiment,  add  a  few  drops  of  oxalic  acid.  The 
color  is  at  once  destroyed. 

Words  to  be  explained,  and  their  meanings  illustrated.— Ad- 
hesive,—mention  some  things  that  are  adhesive.— Sulphate  of  iron,— 
what  it  is  like— what  it  is  composed  of— where  it  is  found— and  what 
it  is  used  for.  Nut  galls,— what  are  their  properties— wliere  are  they 
got?  Precipitate— its  meaning.  Oxalic  acid— what  it  Is,  &c.,— found 
in  plants,  &c. 

When  a  teacher  is  about  to  give  a  lesson  on  any  pro- 
posed subject,  his  first  inquiry  should  be,  "Am  I  suffi- 
ciently acquainted  with  the  subject  ?  "  His  next  inquiry 
should  be,  "How  should  T  treat  the  subject  ?  "  If  he  is 
not  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  subject,  he  should 
at  once  study  it,  and  seek  information  upon  it.  If  he 
does  not  know  how  to  treat  the  subject,  he  should  at 
once  seek  information  from  those  who  are  properly 
qualified  to  give  it. 

When  the  subject  of  the  lesson  requires  experiments 
or  practical  illustrations,  he  should  not  spare  a  little 
trouble  or  expense  to  render  himself  fully  qualified  for 
the  performance  of  his  work.  Experimental  illustrations 
should  be  repeated,  ai^ain  and  again,  until  he  finds  that 
he  can  perform  them  with  perfect  certainty  and  success. 

XI.  On  THE  Periodical  Examination  op  Classes  and 
THE  Registration  op  Progress. 
The  whole  school  should  be  examined  at  stated  inter- 
vals, with  the  view   of  registering  the  progress  of  the 


336  PHILOSOPHY   OF   BDUCATION. 

pupils,  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  remodelling  the 
classes.  These  intervals  will  of  course  vary  according 
to  the  circumstances  and  peculiar  relations  of  the  school, 
hut  the  interval  should,  in  no  case,  exceed  a  quarter  of 
a  year.  Whatever  may  be  the  period  fixed  for  these 
general  examinations,  it  should  be  strictly  adhered  to, 
and  the  examinations  and  registrations  should  be  thor- 
oughly carried  out.  When  any  boy  is  found  qualified 
to  enter  a  higher  class,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  when  any 
boy  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  progress  of  his  class,  no 
feelings  of  delicacy  should  prevent  the  master  from 
making  the  necessary  transfer.  We  shall  afterwards 
have  occasion  to  treat  of  the  different  forms  of  school 
registers. 

XII.  On  the  Qualifications  of  the  Schoolmaster  in 

RELATION  to  HIS  PROFESSIONAL  DuTIES. 

The  qualifications  of  the  schoolmaster  may  be  viewed 
in  the  three  following  aspects: — with  respect  to  his 
attainments;  to  his  capabilities;  and  to  his  character. 

TnK  Teacher's  Attainments,  considered  in  relation 
TO  HIS  Office. 

The  following  attainments  may  be  considered  essen- 
tial to  his  success  as  a  teacher,  whatever  may  be  the 
nature  or  peculiar  character  of  the  school. 

1.  lie  should  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  fol- 
lowing subjects: — The  leading  doctrines  and  narratives 
of  Scripture;  mental  and  common  arithmetic;  reading, 
writing,  and  spelling;  English  history;  and  the  princi- 
ples of  teaching. 

2.  He  should  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  following 


QtJALIPICATlONS   OP  THE   SCHOOLMASTER.  337 

subjects: — Drawing,  mensuration,  and  practical  geom- 
etry; geography  and  astronomy;  elementary  grammar, 
composition,  and  general  history;  elementary  algebra, 
to  the  end  of  quadratic  equations,  together  with  a  little 
demonstrative  geometry;  industrial  mechanics,  and  some 
simple  course  of  experimental  philosophy. 

It  is  highly  desirable  that  his  mind  should  be  well 
stored  with  general  knowledge,  that  he  should  have  a 
ready  command  of  language,  and  that  he  should  be  able 
to  express  his  ideas  with  fluency,  clearness,  and  pre- 
cision, upon  any  subject  within  the  range  of  his  knowl- 
edge. Profound  attainments  in  any  technical  subject 
of  knowledge  are  scarcely  of  any  value  to  him  as  an 
elementary  teacher.  His  knowledge  should  be  varied, 
rather  than  profound.  An  acquaintance  with  Latin  or 
Greek,  or  the  higher  branches  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy,  would  rather  interfere  with  his  use- 
fulness as  an  elementary  teacher.  At  the  same  time,  it 
is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  a  schoolmaster  should 
know  a  good  deal  more  than  he  has  to  teach.  What- 
ever he  has  to  teach,  he  should  know  thoroughly,  at 
least  as  far  as  he  may  have  to  teach  it.  Thus,  to  teach 
little  boys  drawing,  it  is  not  necessary  that  he  should 
become  an  artist;  to  teach  English,  that  he  should  know 
French;  to  teach  simple  equations,  that  he  should  know 
surds;  or  to  teach  some  of  the  most  important  principles 
of  geometry,  that  he  should  know  the  fifth  book  of 
Euclid. 

All  that  technical  knowledge  which  leads  the  mind  of 
the  teacher  away  from  the  subjects  of  elementary  edu- 
cation tends  most  undoubtedly  to  compromise  his  use- 
fulness as   an   elementary   teacher.     It  is  true,  people 


338  PHILOSOPHY   OF   EDUCATION. 

talk  much  about  the  discipline  which  such  subjects  give 
to  his  mind,  as  if  the  knowledge  which  is  essential  to  his 
duties  as  a  teacher,  did  not  sufficiently  exercise,  discipline, 
and  task  his  intellectual  energies.  Would  it  not  be  bet- 
ter to  raise  our  standard  ,of  his  knowledge  in  physical 
science,  and  in  the  principles  and  art  of  education,  than 
to  exact  from  him  such  an  amount  of  knowledge  in 
those  technical  subjects  of  learning  which  have  no  direct 
bearing  upon  the  duties  of  his  profession  ?  But  we 
suppose  that  inspectors  of  schools  and  masters  of  training 
institutions  will  always  regard  their  own  course  of  col- 
legiate education  as  tlie  proper  type  of  the  system  which 
should  be  pursued  in  the  training  of  schoolmasters.* 

The  Teacher's  Capabilities  and  Character  consid- 
ered IX  RELATION  TO  HIS  OfFICE. 

A  teacher  should  be  a  pious,  conscientious  man;  his 
talents  should  be,  at  least,  respectable;  and  he  should 
have  a  decided  predilection  and  aptitude  for  teaching. 
It  is  only  requisite  that  we  should  make  some  observa- 
tions relative  to  the  qualification  which  we  have  called 
aptitude  for  teaching. 

Aptitude  for  Teaching. 

The  most  essential  of  all  qualifications  for  teaching  is 
that  peculiar  faculty  which  we  call,  for  the  want  of  a 
better  name,  aptitude  for  teaching.  Aj)titude  for  teach- 
ing !  what  is  it  ?  There  is  no  mistaking  it,  when  we  see 
it.  Everybody  recognizes  it,  when  it  is  presented  to  his 
notice.     Is  it  a  quality  of  the  head  or  the  heart,  or  does  it 

*  Her  Majesty's  Inspectors  nnw  give  examination  papers  on  method  in 
connection  with  all  the  leading  subjects  of  primary  education. 


QUALIFICATIONS    OF    THE    SCHOOLMASTER.  339 

belong  to  both  ?  Is  it  a  natural  or  an  acquired  gift  ?  Ts 
it  an  instinct,  or  a  habit  acquired  by  efforts,  repeated 
from  the  earliest  dawn  of  reason  ?  Does  it  grow  spon- 
taneously by  imperceptible  gradations  of  development, 
or  is  it  a  faculty  dependent  upon  the  growth  of  certain 
intellectual  and  moral  powers  ? 

We  witness  certain  teaching  effects,  and  too  readily 
rest  satisfied  with  attributing  them  to  what  we  call 
aptitude  for  teaching,  as  if  it  were  some  original  and 
mysterious  faculty,  without  at  all  seeking  to  discover 
the  chain  of  circumstances,  and  the  qualities  of  mind  and 
character  which  have  contributed  to  form  this  aptitude. 
But  we  cannot  allow  the  subject  to  remain  in  this  un- 
philosopbical  condition  of  mysticism.  The  aptitude  for 
teaching  must  undoubtedly  be  a  qualification  resulting 
from  the  development  of  certain  intellectual  and  moral 
faculties  of  our  nature.  Let  us  endeavor  to  analyze  this 
remarkable  qualification,  that  is  to  say,  let  us  endeavor 
to  discover  those  qualities,  intellectual  and  moral,  with 
which  it  is  invariably  associated,  or,  rather,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  the  constant  relation  of  cause  and 
effect. 

It  will  be  instructive,  not  only  to  ascertain  what  such 
a  man  must  be,  but  also  what  he  may  not  be. 

1.  What  a  man  having  an  aptitude  for  teaching  may  not  he. 
(1.)  He  may  not  be  a  man  of  great  technical  attainments. 
(2.)  He  may  not  be  a  man  of  comprehensive  mind,  or 
possessing  great  reasoning  powers.  (3.)  He  may  not  be 
a  man  of  robust  frame. 

2.  What  a  man  having  a  great  aptitude  for  teaching  must  le. 
(1.)  He  must  have  a  love  for  children,  and  a  knowledge 
of  their  tastes,  habits  and  capabilities.     (2.)  He  must 


340  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

be  a  man  of  a  kind  and  benevolent  disposition.  (3.)  He 
must  love  knowledge  and  feel  a  pleasure  in  communi- 
cating it.  (4.)  He  must  be  a  man  of  fervid  imagination, 
and  of  great  enthusiasm,  decision,  and  force  of  character. 
(5.)  He  must  be  a  man  of  respectable  general  attain- 
ments. (6.)  He  must  have  considerable  fluency  of 
speech,  and  powers  of  illustration  and  exposition.  (V.) 
He  must  have  faith  in  the  efficacy  of  instruction,  as  a 
means  of  ameliorating  the  condition  of  society.  (8.) 
He  must  be  a  man  of  quick  and  observing  habits,  and 
must  be  in  the  constant  habit  of  reflecting  and  reasoning 
upon  the  various  methods  by  which  knowledge  may  be 
communicated  to  children. 

Now  as  all  those  qualities,  essential  to  great  aptitude 
for  teaching,  admit  of  cultivation,  it  necessarily  follows 
that  the  aptitude  for  teaching  also  admits  of  cultivation 
in  the  same  degree.  This  aptitude  for  teaching,  there- 
fore, is  no  more  instinctive  or  innate  than  any  of  the 
intellectual  or  moral  faculties  of  our  nature  can  be  said 
to  be. 

XHI.  On  School  Registers  for  recording  the 
Results  of  different  Systems  or  Methods  of  In- 
struction, and  also  for  testing  the  Capabilities 
of  Teachers  in  relation  to  these  Methods. 

These  registers  should  be  regularly  and  faithfully 
filled  up  by  the  head  schoolmaster,  who  is  supposed  to 
be  acquainted  with  all  the  circumstances  and  facts 
necessary  for  doing  so,  and  who  is  supposed  to  test  the 
results  of  the  various  lessons  given  by  the  pupil-teacher 
or  by  the  assistant  teacher,  as  the  case  may  be.  The 
teacher   who   gives  the  lesson  is   supposed   to   adhere 


SCHOOL   REGISTERS.  341 

strictly  to  some  definite  method  or  combination  of 
methods  throughout  the  lesson,  whether  it  be  given  ac- 
cording to  the  interrogative  method,  or  any  other  par- 
ticular method,  or  according  to  a  combination  of  two  or 
more  methods. 

No  doubt  all  intelligent  teachers  have,  more  or  less, 
formed  certain  general  views,  based  on  their  experience, 
respecting  the  relative  merits  of  different  methods  of 
education.  But  these  views  are  too  frequently  based 
upon  a  few  incidental  facts,  and  are  very  rarely  the 
result  of  a  cautious,  candid,  and  systematic  induction  of 
facts  which  have  been  carefully  observed  and  faithfully 
recorded,  and  which  are  so  comprehensive  and  determ- 
inate as  to  embrace  all  the  circumstances  which  may  in 
any  way  affect  the  question. 

The  relative  merit  of  any  two  methods  will,  in  gen- 
eral, be  tested  by  the  progress  of  the  same  class  of 
pupils  when  taught  by  the  different  methods,  under  the 
same  circumstances.  But  as  the  efficiency  of  a  particular 
method  may  depend  not  only  upon  the  age,  character, 
and  attainments  of  the  pupils,  but  also  upon  the  peculiar 
adaption  of  the  method  itself  to  the  mind  and  capabili- 
ties of  the  teacher,  it  is  necessary  that  these  conditions 
should  be  fully  recorded  in  the  register.  If  sufficient 
data  of  this  kind  were  collected,  we  should  then  be  able 
to  arrive  at  the  following  generalizations  with  consid- 
erable certainty: — 

1.  Under  a  certain  range  of  capabilities  of  the  teacher, 
and  under  a  certain  average  condition  of  intelligence  on 
the  part  of  the  pupils,  what  method,  or  combination  of 
methods  is  best  adapted  for  teaching  certain  given  sub- 
jects. 


342  PIIILOSOPHT    OF   EDUCATION. 

2.  What  niethorl,  or  combination  of  methods,  is  best 
adapted,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  to  a  teacher  of 
given  qualifications  and  capabilities. 

3.  What  method,  or  combination  of  methods,  is  most 
suitable,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  boys  of  given   age,    character  and  attainments. 

4.  What  qualifications  and  capabilities  are  best  calcu- 
lated to  form  a  good  teacher. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  systems  and  methods 
most  eligible  for  being  tested  in  this  way:  — 

1.  The  comparative  advantages  of  the  individual  and 
collective  methods  of  teaching.  To  what  extent  should 
individual  instruction  be  carried,  when  combined  with 
the  method  of  collective  teaching  ?  and  in  what  subjects 
may  the  respective  methods  be  most  efficiently  em- 
ployed ? 

2.  The  comparative  advantages  of  the  synthetic  and 
analytic  methods,  applied  to  the  teaching  of  different 
subjects. 

3.  The  method  of  suggestive  interrogation  compared 
with  the  dogmatic  method,  or  with  the  purely  elliptical 
form  of  giving  collective  lessons. 

4.  The  familiar  style  of  lecturing,  on  the  best  recog- 
nized form,  compared  wnth  the  plan  of  using  reading- 
books  or  text-books.  Or  the  comparative  efficiency  of 
a  system  which  adopts  certain  advantages  belonging  to 
each. 

5.  The  advantages  arising  from  home  instruction, 
when  associated  with  certain  forms  of  teaching. 

6.  Comparison  of  different  modes  of  teaching  children 
to  read,  or  to  write,  or  to  spell. 

I  have  used  this  plan  of  registration  in  connection  with 


REGISTRATION   OF   RESULTS.  343 

the  model  lessons  which  I  have  had  occasion  to  superin- 
tend; and  it  has  led  me  to  several  important  generaliz- 
ations relative  to  methods  of  instruction,  to  their  adap- 
tation to  the  minds  of  different  masters,  and  to  their 
suitableness  to  different  classes  of  pupils;  and  also  with 
respect  to  those  qualifications,  &c.,  on  the  part  of  the 
master,  which  are  most  likely  to  form  the  superior 
teacher.  It  is  not  improbable  that  some  of  these  gen- 
eralizations may  not  have  been  based  upon  a  sufficient 
number  of  facts,  or  that  they  may  not  have  embraced 
some  hidden  circumstances  which  might  vitiate  the  de- 
ductions. Be  this  as  it  may,  they  constitute  the  chief 
results  of  the  experience  of  my  life  as  a  practical  edu- 
cator. 

General  Conclusions  derived  from  the  Writer's 
Registration  of  the  Results  of  Methods,  &c. 

1.  Relative  to  Systems  oj  Teaching. 

1.  Comparatively  few  men  teach  well  upon  the  ellip- 
tical plan  of  giving  lessons.  The  efficiency  of  this  plan 
is  much  increased  by  being  associated  with  direct  inter- 
rogation. Bible  lessons  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 
elliptical  form  of  teaching. 

2.  It  is  much  more  easy  to  lecture  than  it  is  to  teach. 
Lecturing,  especially  in  an  elementary  school,  should 
always  be  accompanied  with  a  close  system  of  question- 
ing. 

3.  Collective  teaching  is  most  efficient  when  it  is  fol- 
lowed by  individual  instruction — by  individual  examina- 
tion— or  by  the  reproduction  of  the  subject-matter  of 
the  lesson  in  writing  by  the  pupils. 


344  PHILOSOPHY   OF   EDUCATION. 

4.  Oral  instruction,  given  in  the  form  of  familiar  lec- 
tures by  a  superior  teacher,  is  in  general  a  much  more 
efficient  mode  of  instruction  than  the  plan  of  teaching 
from  reading-books  or  text-books,  even  when  accompa- 
nied with  an  analysis  of  the  subject-matter  which  has 
been  read  by  the  class. 

5.  Suggestive  modes  of  interrogation  should  never  be 
employed  as  tests  of  progress.  The  questions  which  we 
use  for  the  purpose  should  not  contain  the  slightest  clue 
to  the  answer. 

6.  As  a  general  rule,  having  some  important  excep- 
tions, the  progress  of  the  pupils  is  in  proportion  to  the 
apparent  amount  of  attention  which  they  give  to  the 
lesson  or  lessons. 

2.  Relative  to  the  Qualifications  of  the  Master. 

1.  Teachers  of  limited  capacity,  or  whose  command 
of  language  is  limited,  invariably  teach  best  with  text- 
books, or  by  the  individual  system  of  instruction. 

2.  Men  of  fervid  imaginations,  having  a  great  com- 
mand of  language  and  enthusiasm  of  character,  almost 
invariably  become  superior  teachers. 

3.  Decision  of  character  almost  invariably  forms  an 
element  in  the  qualifications  of  a  superior  teacher. 

4.  Men  who  are  deficient  in  general  knowledge  and  in 
enthusiasm  of  character,  are  generally  bad  teachers,  even 
though  they  may  possess  great  technical  acquirements. 

6.  An  earnest  man,  imbued  with  the  love  of  children, 
is  rarely  a  bad  teacher. 

6.  The  love  of  teaching  is  generally  associated  with 
the  capability  for  it;  but  the  converse  does  not  so  fre- 
quently hold  true. 


REGISTEATION   OP   RESULTS.  346 

7.  A  man  of  superior  teaching  power  teaches  well  by 
any  rational  method.  But  he  will  always  teach  best  by 
that  method  which  is  suited  to  his  peculiar  capabilities. 

8.  Men  generally  teach  badly  when  they  attempt  to 
teach  too  much,  or  when  they  do  not  duly  prepare  their 
lessons. 

9.  Presence  of  mind,  and  that  self-confidence  which  is 
based  on  self-knowledge,  are  essential  elements  in  a  good 
teacher's  character. 

10.  Success  in  teaching  is  more  dependent  upon  the 
capabilities  of  the  master  for  teaching,  than  upon  his 
technical  acquirements.  Teaching-power  is  not  always 
associated  with  superior  talents  or  great  acquirements. 

11.  A  teacher  must  practise  a  new  method  until  he  is 
fully  master  of  it,  before  he  can  come  to  any  conclusion 
as  to  its  efficiency.  Teachers  are  too  prone  to  attribute 
their  failures  to  the  method  they  employ,  rather  than  to 
the  improper  way  in  which  they  use  it. 

12.  The  best  meth(»ds  are  the  worst  instruments  which 
can  be  put  into  the  hands  of  incompetent  teachers.  The 
best  and  most  intellectual  methods  require  a  correspond- 
ing skill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  to  use  them  with 
efficiency. 

3.  Relative  to  Pupils . 

1.  The  more  exciting  modes  of  instruction  are  best 
suited  to  phlegmatic  children,  or  to  the  children  of  the 
poor.  Children  of  precocious  minds  do  not  require 
exciting  modes  of  teaching. 

2.  Collective  teaching  associated  with  individual 
questioning,  &c.,  should  invariably  be  used  in  teaching 
boys  from  six  to  twelve  years  of  age.     The  advanced 


346  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

boys  should  have  a  larger  amount  of  individual  teach- 
ing. 

3.  Evening  exercises,  when  the  parents  are  able  and 
willing  to  co-operate  with  the  teacher,  add  greatly  to 
the  efficiency  of  school  instruction. 

4.  Children  in  manufacturing  and  mechanical  dis- 
tricts, evince  considerable  aptitude  for  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  geometry,  mechanism,  and  construction. 
Indeed,  as  a  general  rule,  the  predilections  of  children 
have  a  leaning  towards  the  pursuits  of  their  parents. 
School  routines  should  always  have  a  due  regard  to  the 
tastes,  wants,  and  capabilities  of  the  pupils. 

Forms  of  Entry  in  the  Register. 

Where  there  are  a  great  many  entries  to  be  made  in 
the  columns  of  a  school  register,  it  becomes  desirable 
that  we  should  have  some  concise  and  graphic  mode  of 
symbolizing  the  results  which  are  to  be  recorded.  The 
symbol  which  I  have  adopted  to  express  any  word,  is 
simply  the  first  letter  of  the  word,  and,  where  ambiguity 
may  arise,  the  first  two  or  the  first  three  letters  of  the 
word.  The  numerals,  1,  2,  3,  are  used  to  express  the 
amount  of  any  qualification,  or  the  extent  to  which  any 
plan  or  method  may  be  carried.  These  numerals,  affixed 
to  any  symbol  expressing  a  particular  qualification,  in- 
dicate the  amount  or  degree  of  that  qualification,  that  is 
to  say,  whether  it  is  moderate,  fair,  or  excellent.  Teach- 
ers, of  course,  will  modify  or  extend  these  symbols  to 
suit  their  convenience,  or  they  may  perhaps  find  it  most 
convenient  to  adhere  to  the  ordinary  form  of  registration. 
These  symbols,  it  will  readily  be  understood,  do  not  form 
an  essential  feature  of  the  proposed  plan  of  registration. 


APPLICATION    OF    SYSTEMS    AND    METHODS.  347 


Part  IV. 

ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  DIFFERENT  SYSTEMS  AND 
METHODS  TO  THE  VARIOUS  BRANCHES  OF  ELE- 
MENTARY EDUCATION. 

The  Scriptures;  History;  &c. 

Bible  lessons  should  always  be  given,  in  an  elementary 
school,  on  the  collective  system  of  teaching.  The  fol- 
lowing rules  may  be  advantageously  observed  in  giving 
these  lessons. 

1.  The  passages  on  which  the  lesson  is  given  should 
be  read  by  the  class.  In  the  course  of  the  reading,  the 
meaning  of  the  words  should  be  familiarly  explained  to 
the  children,  and  the  general  purport  of  the  lesson 
should  be  constantly  kept  before  them. 

2.  The  teacher  should  picture  out  the  subject-matter 
of  the  lesson,  after  the  manner  described  in  connection 
with  the  cultivation  of  memory  (see  p.  239).  This  will, 
generally,  be  best  done  by  the  method  of  ellipses,  occas- 
ionally varied  by  individual  or  collective  interrogation. 

3.  The  subject  should  be  elucidated  by  the  method  of 
contrasts  and  resemblances  (explained  in  connection 
with  the  cultivation  of  the  memory,  see  p.  230). 

4.  The  progress  of  the  class  should  be  tested  by  the 
individual  method  of  instruction. 

5.  The  duties  to  be  learned  from  the  lesson  should  be 
fully  explained.     This  will  generally  be  most  efficiently 


348  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

carried  out  by  the  method  of  suggestive  interrogation, 
or  by  the  method  of  ellipses. 

6.  Notes  of  the  lesson  should  be  written,  with  con- 
ciseness and  distinctness,  upon  the  blackboard. 

Sketch  of  a  Bible  Lesson. — Subject:  Trial  of  Abraham's 
faith.  Genesis,  chap,  xxii.,  verses  1  to  13.  Mixed 
method:  interrogative,  elliptical,  illustrative,  &c. 

1.  The  Reading  Lesson.  Words  and  phrases  to  be  ex- 
plained in  the  course  of  the  reading: — The  land  of 
Moriah,  burnt-offering,  worship,  &c. 

2.  The  picture.  [The  words  to  be  supplied  by  the 
pupils  are  printed  in  italics.] 

Abraham  was  a  very  good  man,  and  had  great  faith 
or  trust  in  his  God:  Abraham  liad  one  «ow,  called  Isaac^ 
one  darling  boy,  that  he  loved  more  than  anything  in 
the  world:  Abraham  was  very  happy  with  his  son  Isaac:* 
God  was  about  to  put  Abraham's  faith  and  obedience  to 
a  very  great  trial:  Let  us  see  how  God  tried  Abraham's 
faith  and  obedience.  God  told  Abraham  to  take  his  son 
Isaac  to  a  mountain  a  great  way  off,  and  offer  him  there 
for  a  burnt-offering.  Oh  !  what  a  trial  for  Abraham's 
obedience  this  was,  to  slay  his  only  son  as  he  did  lambs 
and  calves  and  rams,  upon  the  altar  as  a  burnt-offering. 
But  Abraham  loved  and  feared  God  so  much  tliat  he 
never  doubted  for  one  moment  that  whatever  God  com- 
manded him  to  do  would  be  for  his  good^ — he  did  not 
even  ask  why  he  should  slay  his  «o»,  because  he  was  sure 
that  God  had  a  good  reason  for  what  he  required  him  to 
do,  Abraham  then  got  up  early  in  the  morning,  and 
saddled  his  ass,  and  took  two  of  the  young  men  with  him, 

♦If  the  pupils  do  not  till  the  ellipses,  the  teacher  should  ask  the  question : 
"  What  was  the  name  of  Abraham's  son  ?  " 


APPLICATION    OF    SYSTEMS    AND    METHODS.  349 

and  Isaac  his  son,  and  cut  some  wood  for  a  burnt-offering, 
and  started  off  towards  the  place  where  God  had  told 
him  to  go.  After  they  had  travelled  for  three  days  and 
three  nights,  they  at  last  came  in  sight  of  the  mountain: 
Abraham  lifted  up  his  eyes  and  saw  the  place  afar  off.  And 
he  told  his  young  man  to  stop  and  take  care  of  the  ass^ 
while  he  and  his  son  went  up  the  mountain.  Behold 
Abraham  and  his  son,  as  they  climb  the  mountain; — 
Isaac  carries  the  heavy  burden  of  wood  for  the  lurnt- 
offering,  and  Abraham  carries  the  fire  to  kindle  the 
wood,  and  in  his  hand  is  the  terrible  knife  with  which  he 
is  to  slay  his  only  son  as  an  offering  to  the  Lord; — how 
sorrowful  Abraham  looks, — God  has  commanded  him  to 
offer  his  son  as  a  burnt-offering.  Isaac  seems  at  a  loss 
to  know  what  hi^  father  is  about  to  do  with  him.  When 
they  came  to  the  place  which  God  bad  told  Abraham  of, 
Abraham  laid  the  wood  in  order,  and  bound  his  son  and 
laid  him  upon  the  altar.  His  hand  is  stretched  forth, — 
and  he  is  about  to  plunge  the  knife  into  his  son,  but  the 
angel  of  the  Lord  arrested  the  stroke,  saying  to  Abraham 
out  of  heaven^ — "  Now  I  know  that  thou  f earest  God,  see- 
ing that  thou  hast  not  withheld  thy  son,  thine  only  son, 
from  me." 

3.  Contrasts  and  ResemUances. — Contrast  Abraham's 
character  with  that  of  Balaam  or  with  that  of  Jonah. 
Compare  Abraham's  readiness  to  sacrifice  his  only  son 
at  the  command  of  God,  with  the  great  sacrifice  which 
Christ  offered  up,  upon  the  cross,  for  the  sins  of  the 
world. 

4.  Examination.  To  what  land  did  God  command 
Abraham  to  go  to  offer  up  his  son  ?  How  was  Isaac  to 
be  offered  ?    For  how  many  days  did  they  travel  before 


350  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

they  came  in  sight  of  the  mountain  ?  Who  went  with 
Abraham  to  the  place  of  sacrifice  ?  What  did  he  say 
to  the  young  man  before  he  left  them  ?  &c.,  &c. 

5.  Duties  to  he  learned  from  the  lesson.  When  we  are  sore 
beset  with  trials,  what  should  we  always  do  ?  How- 
ever hard  our  lot  in  this  world  may  be,  our  duty  is 
simply  to  obey  God,  who  always  knows  what  is  best  for 
us.  If  we  simply  follow  the  commands  of  God,  however 
strange  they  may  appear  to  our  corrupt  nature,  He  will 
find  a  way  of  escape  for  us.  God  often  tries  our  faith 
as  he  did  Abraham's  of  old,  by  requiring  us  to  perform 
painful  duties,  but  we,  like  him,  should  obey  God,  and 
leave  the  results  in  His  hands,  knowing  that  all  thi^igs 
will  at  last  work  out  for  the  good  of  them  that  fear  Him. 

6.  Notes  written  on  the  blackboard.  God's  command  to 
Abraham, — given  to  try  his  faith;  his  journey  to  Mo- 
riah; — Abraham  and  his  son  went  alone  to  the  place  of 
sacrifice; — the  angel  of  the  Lord  prevented  Abraham 
from  slaying  his  son;  <fcc. 

History  and  Subjects  of  General  Reading. 

History,  and  other  subjects  of  general  reading,  should 
be  taught  by  the  same  method  as  that  which  we  have 
just  described  in  relation  to  the  teaching  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. 

Reading  and  Spelling;  Etymology;  Grammar. 

These  subjects  should  be  taught,  in  our  elementary 
schools,  upon  the  collective  system  of  instruction. 
While  one  boy  reads  or  spells,  the  other  boys  must 
listen.  Important  passages  should  be  read  simultane- 
ously by  the  class,  and  sometimes  words  should  be  spelt, 


THE    PHONIC    SYSTEM.  351 

letter  after  letter,  in  the  same  manner.  In  the  course 
of  the  reading,  the  master  will  frequently  have  occasion 
to  correct  the  pronunciation,  indistinct  utterance,  the 
accent  and  the  intonations  of  pupils.  Whenever  he  does 
so,  he  should  always  endeavor  to  put  his  reasons  into 
the  form  of  a  general  rule.  Above  all  things,  the  pupils 
should  be  taught  to  read  with  intelligence. 

Very  young  children  should  be  taught  to  read  from 
large  class- cards,  having  pictures  of  the  leading  subjects 
of  each  lesson.  The  look  and  say  plan  of  teaching  to  read 
is  certainly  the  best,  especially  when  it  is  combined 
with  some  of  the  most  striking  principles  of  the  phonic 
method.  In  like  manner,  the  best  plan  for  teaching 
children  to  spell  is  to  get  them  to  write  out  the  lessons 
which  they  have  read;  the  eye,  in  my  opinion,  is  a  bet- 
ter guide  to  correct  spelling  than  the  ear.  The  lessons 
for  teaching  little  children  to  read  should  contain  fre- 
quent repetitions  of  the  same  word  in  each  lesson.  Let 
us  take  an  example: 

Specimen  of  a  Reading  Lesson  for  Little  Children. 

Tom  is  a  good  boy.  A  good  boy  does  what  he  is  told. 
I  told  Tom  to  be  good.  John  is  a  bad  boy.  A  bad  boy 
does  not  do  what  he  is  told.     And  so  on. 

When  the  child  is  able  to  read  words  of  three  letters, 
he  should  then  be  taught  to  read  words  of  four  or  more 
letters;  and  after  words  of  one  syllable  he  should  be 
taught  to  read  words  of  two  syllables;  and  so  on. 

In  the  course  of  these  reading  lessons,  the  intelligent 
teacher  will  not  fail  occasionally  to  avail  himself  of  some 
of  the  most  prominent  principles  of  the  phonic  system 
of  reading.     Certain  combinations  of  letters  almost  in- 


352  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

variably  represent  certain  elementary  sounds;  as,  for 
example, — the  sound  of  ad^  In  bad,  lad,  sad,  mad,  &c.; 
the  sound  of  ay  in  bay,  lay,  say,  may,  &c. ;  the  sound  of 
un  in  bun,  sun,  &c. ;  the  sound  of  sh  in  shut,  shark,  shave, 
shall,  &c.;  the  sound  of  ch  in  child,  chide,  chick,  &c.; 
and  so  on. 

The  ordinary  box  of  reading  letters  should  be  used  in 
showing  the  child  how  the  elementary  sounds  go  to  form 
the  sound  of  the  word.  Thus  in  showing  the  sound  of 
the  word  8have,  the  teacher  first  gives  the  sound  of  the 
letters  «A,  next  that  of  ave,  and  then  putting  the  letters 
together  he  gives  the  compound  sound  ahave. 

To  follow  out  the  phonic  system  of  reading,  in  all  its 
details,  is  neither  practicable  nor  desirable.  The  fact  is, 
this  system  requires  the  pupils  to  make  analyses  of 
sounds,  which  we  ourselves  never  do  in  the  practice  of 
reading.  The  rules  of  pronunciation  in  our  language 
are  so  very  complicated,  that  it  seems  to  be  almost  ridic- 
ulous to  attempt  to  teach  reading  on  a  strictly  phonic 
plan.  By  the  practice  of  reading,  on  the  look  and  say 
system  (aided  by  the  occasional  Innts  relative  to  the  ele- 
mentary sounds  of  the  most  common  combinations  of 
letters),  the  child  gradually  and  insensibly  acquires  the 
pronunciation  of  words.  On  the  teaching  of  the  alpha- 
bet, see  page  229. 

The  etymology  of  technical  words  and  philosophical 
terms  (particularly  those  that  are  derived  from  the  Greek 
and  Latin)  should  be  given  in  connection  with  reading 
lessons.  But  the  teacher  should  bear  in  mind  that  the 
derivation  of  a  technical  term  does  not  supersede  the 
necessity  of  giving  the  full  meaning  of  the  term,  as  it  is 
used  in  our  language;  the  chief  purpose  which  etymol- 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  353 

ogy  serves,  in  the  elementary  school,  is  to  aid  the  pupils 
in  remembering  the  signification  of  technical  terms.  Im- 
portant words  and  phrases,  which  occur  in  the  lesson, 
should  be  written,  in  large  characters,  upon  the  black- 
board, with  their  meanings  and  derivations. 

Grammar  should  also  be  taught  in  connection  with  the 
reading  lessons.  But  besides  such  desultory  exercises 
on  Grammar,  the  definitions  and  principles  should  be 
systematically  taught  by  collective  lessons,  and  by  simple 
text-books  upon  the  subject. 

Grammar  more  fully  considered. 

Grammar  may  be  taught  by  a  constructive  method,  or 
by  a  method  of  progressive  development.  A  first  course 
of  instruction  should  comprehend  all  the  simple  parts  of 
speech  without  their  inflections,  &c. ;  the  particular  and 
most  familiar  form  of  each  definition  should  be  ex- 
plained before  the  general  or  most  abstract  form;  and 
where  the  definition  contains  a  comprehensive  statement, 
it  should  be  broken  down  into  its  component  parts,  and 
after  each  part  has  been  successfully  explained,  their 
relative  connection,  or  dependence,  should  be  distinctly 
pointed  out.  A  second  course  of  grammar  should  com- 
prehend the  inflections  of  words;  and  a  third  course 
that  of  the  analysis  of  sentences  and  the  rules  of  syntax 
and  composition.  These  rules  should  be  based  on  the 
analysis  of  sentences;  for  by  so  doing  we  follow  one  of 
our  most  certain  general  principles  of  method,  viz.,  that 
of  teaching  the  concrete  before  the  abstract.  We  have 
too  much  parsing  in  our  schools,  and  too  little  of  the 
practice  of  composition.  Teachers  should  get  their 
pupils  to  construct  sentences  as  early  as  possible;  for  it 


354  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

should  be  borne  in  mind  that  parsing  is  only  a  means 
for  the  attainment  of  an  end,  that  is,  to  enable  the  pupils 
to  write  and  speak  with  accuracy  and  facility.  All  our 
exercises  in  composition  should  have  some  actual  object, 
they  should  express  familiar  ideas,  or  describe  things 
and  events  which  actually  exist;  see  page  183.  The 
old  plan  of  teaching  syntax  (that  is,  by  giving  bad 
English  to  correct  under  each  rule)  has  not  yet  been 
superseded.  In  grammar,  as  in  many  things  else,  we 
seem  to  know  what  is  right  by  seeing  what  is  wrong; 
and  we  are  all  the  better  able  to  follow  what  is  right,  by 
constantly  endeavoring  to  avoid  what  is  wrong. 

A  lesson  on  Grammar.  Subject — The  noun.  Mixed 
method,  interrogation,  ellipses,  &c. 

Now,  my  children,  I  am  going  to  show  you  what  a 
noun  is.     Listen  ! 

A  NOUN  is  the  name  of  an  object  or  thing;  as,  book, 
apple,  table,  &c. 

Hat  is  the  name  of  a  thing ^ — what  kind  of  word  is  hat  ? 
Write  the  following  sentence  on  your  slates:  "Pears 
and  apples  grow  on  trees."  Now  put  a  line  below  all 
those  words  which  are  nouns. 

A  NOUN  is  the  name  of  an  animal;  as,  dog,  cat,  horse, 
&c. 

Cow  is  the  name  of  an  animal;  therefore,  the*  word 
cow  is  a  noun.     And  so  on  to  other  examples. 

A  NOUN  is  the  name  of  a  person;  as,  John,  Thomas, 
Milton,  &c. 

Andrew  is  the  name  of  a  person ;  therefore,  the  word 
Andrew  is  a  noun.     And  so  on  to  other  examples. 


ENGLISH   GKAMMAR.  356 

A  NOUN  is  the  name  of  a  place;  as,  London,  York, 
Leeds,  &c. 

Hounslow  is  the  name  of  a  place ;  therefore,  the  word 
Hounslow  is  a  noun. 

A  NOUN  is  the  name  of  anything  which  we  can  speak 
of  as  existing;  as,  chair,  whiteness,  darkness,  &c. 

I  can  speak  of  a  table  as  a  thing  which  exists;  there- 
fore, the  word  table  is  a  noun,  I  can  speak  of  the  soul 
as  existing;  therefore,  the  word  soul  is  a  7wun.  And  so 
on. 

Now  let  us  collect  together  all  that  has  been  said 
about  a  noun. 

A  NOUN  IS  the  name  of  an  object,  an  animal,  a 

PERSON,    A    PLACE,    OR    ANYTHING    WE    CAN    SPEAK    OP   AS 
EXISTING. 

Give  me  as  many  words  as  you  can  think  of,  which 
are  nouns. 

Why  is  the  word  book  a  noun?  Why  is  the  word 
HEAVEN  a  noun  ?  And  so  on.  Put  a  mark  beneath  all 
the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences: — Thomas  has  got 
a  dog.     London  is  a  large  city,  &c. 

A  lesson  on  Grammar,  Subject — The  adjective.  Mixed 
method. 

An  ADJECTIVE  is  a  word  which  points  out  the  quality 
of  a  noun;  as,  large,  good,  black,  &c. 

I  have  a  sharp  knife.  Now  what  word  here  points 
out  the  quality  of  the  knife  ?  Sharp,  then,  is  an  adjec- 
tive, for  it  points  out  or  expresses  the  quality  of  the 
knife. 

He  gave  me  some apples.     Now  all  the  words 

which  I  put  before  the  word  apples  to  make  sense  are 


850  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION, 

adje(;tives,  —  find  out  as  many  of  them  as  you  can.  Small, 
large ^  round,  ripe,  wiripe,  sour,  red,  sweet,  &c. 

An  adjective  limits  the  meaning  of  a  noun;  this, 
many,  fourth.     And  so  on. 

Now  let  us  collect  togethei*  all  that  has  been  said 
about  an  adjective. 

An  ADJECTIVE  IS  A  WORD  WHICH  POINTS  OUT  THE 
QUALITY  OF  A  NOUN,  OR  LIMITS  ITS  MEANING. 

Put  a  mark  beneath  all  the  adjectives  in  the  following 
sentences: — 

A  liorse  is  a  noble  animal.     The  cow  gives  fine  milk. 

Why  is  the  word  the  an  adjective  ?  Why  is  the  word 
noble  an  adjective  ?     And  so  on  to  other  examples. 

Lessons  on  composition  and  the  analysis  of  sentences. 

1.  To  enlarge  the  subject.  Simple  sentence, — *'  The 
dog  is  ill."* 

What  is  the  subject  of  this  sentence  ?  What  is  the 
predicate  ? 

Now  I  shall  enlarge  the  subject  of  this  sentence,  that 
is  to  say,  I  shall  add  something  which  shall  tell  us  all 
about  the  dog. 

"The  dog  is  ill." 

1.  The  large  dog  is  ill. 

2.  The  dog,  Pompey,  is  ill. 

3.  The  carrier^  dog  is  ill. 

4.  The  dog  of  four  years  old  is  ill. 

5.  The  dog,  being  very  fat,  is  ill. 

And  putting  all  these  enlargements  of  the  subject  in 
one  sentence,  we  have: — 

*  H«n-e  we  suppose  this  to  be  really  a  fact. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAB.  ;  3o7 

The  carrier^ s  large  dog,  Pompey,  of  four  years  old,  lemg 
very  fat,  is  ill. 

What  purpose  is  served  by  these  enlargements  of  the 
subject  ?  What  do  they  tell  us  ?  First,  that  the  dog  is 
large;  second,  that  his  name  is  Pompey;  third,  that  he 
belongs  to  the  carrier;  fourth,  that  he  is  four  years  old; 
and  fifth,  that  he  is  very  fat.  What  kind  of  word  have 
1  used  to  enlarge  the  subject  in  No.  1  ?  The  adjective 
large.     And  so  on  to  the  others. 

Enlarge  the  subject  of  the  following  sentence;  first, 
by  an  adjective;  second,  by  a  noun  in  apposition;  and 
so  on :  "  The  boy  reads." 

2.  To  extend  the  predicate,  k^imple  sentence, — "  The 
boy  reads." 

The  predicate  may  be  extended  in  the  following  dif- 
ferent ways: — 

"  The  boy  reads." 

1.  The  boy  ve2n\^  fluently . 

2.  The  boy  reads /or  information. 
(b)  The  boy  reads  at  home. 

3.  The  boy  reads  every  day, 

4.  The  boy  reads  standing. 

In  (1)  the  predicate  is  extended  by  an  adverb;  in  (2) 
by  2i preposition  or  by  a  prepositional  phrase;  in  (3)  by  a 
noun  in  the  objective  case;  in  (4)  by  a  participle  used 
adverbially. 

In  (1)  and  (4)  we  use  an  adjunct  of  manner;  in  (2) 
an  adjunct  of  cause;  in  (b)  an  adjunct  of  ^/a^;^  ;  in  (3) 
an  adjunct  of  time. 

Show  the  different  ways  in  which  the  predicate  in  the 
following  sentence  may  be  extended:     "The  boy  runs." 


358  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

Point  out  the  subject,  predicate,  and  object  of  the 
following  sentence:  "A  bad  hoy  ^  called  Thomson^hurt  little 
William  very  severely.'^''  What  words  enlarge  the  subject  ? 
What  word  qualifies  the  subject?  What  words  extend 
the  predicate  ? 

Observation. — Proceeding  in  this  way,  the  pupil  will  be 
taught  t/he  art  of  composition.  But  in  all  this  there  is 
comparatively  little  knowledge  of  parsing  required. 

Aeithmetic. 

All  the  junior  classes,  in  an  elementary  school,  should 
be  taught  arithmetic  on  the  collective  system.  The 
synthetic  method  of  demonstration,  first  explained,  at 
least  in  this  country,  in  the  writer's  treatise  on  the  Prin- 
ciples of  Arithmetic,  is  certainly  the  best  adapted  for 
elementary  instruction.  The  suggestive  method  of  in- 
terrogation is  most  generally  applicable  to  the  teaching 
of  demonstrative  arithmetic. 

In  teaching  common  or  slate  arithmetic,  the  following 
general  rules  should  be  observed: — 

1.  All  the  demonstrations  should  be  given  distinctly 
upon  the  blackboard. 

2.  The  essential  data  of  the  question  (not  the  whole 
question)  should  be  written,  in  a  proper  order,  on  the 
blackboard,  especially  when  the  question  contains  three 
or  more  data. 

3.  The  teacher  should  fully  explain  every  step  of  the 
process  as  he  writes  it  down.  It  is  a  bad  plan  to  work 
out  the  whole  question,  and  then  to  proceed  with  the 
explanation. 

4.  The  pupils  should  take  a  part  in  the  investigation. 
The  master  should  require  them,  time  after  time,  to  tell 


ARITHMETIC.  369 

him  what  quantities  he  must  write  down  at  the  different 
steps  of  the  investigation. 

Let  us  take  a  few  examples  of  this  method  of  teach- 
ing arithmetic. 

1 .  Lesson  on  the  Addition  of  Fractions. 

Let  it  be  required  to  add  one-half  and  three  fourths 
togetiier. 

Here,  before  we  can  add  these  fractions  together,  we 
must  bring  them  to  the  same  part  of  unity,  or,  to  speak 
more  simply,  we  must  bring  them  to  bits  of  the  same 
size.  Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  to  find  how  much  the 
half  of  a  loaf  added  to  the  three-quarters  of  a  loaf  will 
make.  What  do  I  take  as  the  unit  here  ?  (Ans.  A  loaf.) 
Now,  how  do  we  get  the  half  of  a  loaf?  (Ans.  By 
cutting  it  into  two  equal  parts.)  How  do  we  get  the 
three-fourths  of  the  loaf  ?  (Ans.  By  cutting  the  loaf 
into  four  equal  parts,  and  taking  three  of  them.)  Now, 
how  should  you  put  the  half  bits  into  quarter  bits  ? 
(Ans.  By  cutting  each  half  into  two  equal  bits,  for  then 
we  should  have  the  whole  loaf  cut  into  four  equal  bits.) 
Very  well.  Now,  how  many  fourths  will  there  be  in 
one-half?  (Ans.  Two-fourths.)  So  that  you  have  to 
put  together,  or  add,  two-fourths  and  three-fourths. 
What  will  they  make  ?  (Ans.  Five-fourths.)  But  I 
want  you  to  give  me  the  sum  in  mixed  numbers.  How 
many  whole  loaves  would  you  have  in  five  quarter 
loaves  ?  (Ans.  One,  and  a  quarter  more.)  That  is  to 
say,  the  sum  of  one-half  and.  three-quarters  will  be  equal 
to  one  and  a  quarter. 

I  am  going  to  show  you  how  to  do  this  question  in 
another  way. 


360  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

i  I  or  1 


i  f  f  I  or  1. 

Let  a  stick  or  a  line  (A  B)  be  divided  on  the  upper 
side  into  two  equal  parts,  and  the  bottom  side  into  four 
equal  parts.  What  will  each  of  the  upper  parts  be 
called  ?  What  will  each  of  the  bottom  parts  be  called  ? 
Look  at  the  figure,  and  tell  me  how  many  fourths  there 
are  in  each  half.     And  so  on,  as  before. 

The  teacher  should  also  do  the  same  thing  by  the 
division  of  a  space. 

2.  A  Lesson  on  Rule  of  Three. 

Let  it  be  required  to  find  the  cost  of  9  books,  when 
the  cost  of  a  dozen  is  8«.  \d. 

Let  us  first  write  tlie  essential  data  of  the  question  on 
the  blackboard. 

DATA. 

Cost  of  12  is  8«.  \d. ;  the  cost  of  9  is  required. 

SOLUTION  TO  BE  WKITTEN  ON  THE  BLACKBOARD. 

Cost  12  books  =  8s.  \d. 
.  • .  Cost  36  books  =  3  times  8s.  Id.  =  248.  Sd. 

-.  Cost  9  books  =  one  fourth  part  of  24«.  dd.  =  ?!f_^  =  6s.  O^d. 

4 

After  the  teacher  has  written  down  the  language,  "Cost 
12  books  =,"  he  asks  the  class,  "  What  shall  I  put  ihis 
equal  to  ?  "  After  he  has  received  the  answer,  he  fills 
it  in,  and  then  asks,  "  Why  is  it  equal  to  8s.  Id.?  "  "  How 
many  books  have  we  to  find  the  cost  of  ?  "  "  Now  if 
we  can  get  the  cost  of  36  books,  we  may  readily  get  the 
cost  of  9,  as  you  will  see,  when  we  proceed  with  the 
solution."     After  writing  down,  "  Cost  36  books  =,"  he 


kilN^AL    AElTHMtitlC.  ^6l 

asks,  "  Will  the  cost  of  36  books  be  more  or  less  than 
the  cost  of  12  books?"  "Why?"  "You  are  quite 
right;  three  times  the  number  of  books  will  cost  three 
times  as  much."  "Now  having  got  the  cost  of  36 
books,  how  are  we  to  get  the  cost  of  9  ?  "  "  Exactly  so; 
one-fourth  the  number  will  of  course  cost  one-fourth  the 
price."     And  so  on. 

The  more  advanced  boys  should  be  sometimes  called 
upon  to  give  a  demonstration  on  the  blackboard. 

Cental  Arithmetic. 

This  subject  should  be  taught  on  the  collective  system, 
in  connection  with  the  method  of  interrogation.  The 
boys  prepared  with  an  answer  to  the  question  proposed 
by  the  master,  should  hold  up  their  hands,  and  the 
master  must  then  call  upon  some  boy  to  give  the  answer; 
and  so  on  to  the  other  artifices  described  in  connection 
with  the  subject  of  collective  teaching.  Young  children 
should  be  practised  for  some  time  in  mental  calculation, 
before  they  are  taught  anything  relative  to  the  symbols 
and  notation  of  numbers.  Strokes,  counters,  balls,  &c., 
should  be  taken  as  the  representatives  of  numbers,  and 
all  the  leading  properties  and  operations  of  arithmetic 
should  be  demonstrated  by  the  use  of  these  objects, 
before  any  technical  modes  of  calculation  are  attempted. 
All  the  processes  should  be  thoroughly  demonstrative, 
and  no  rules  should  be  laid  down  independently  of  the 
investigations.  All  tricks  and  clap-traps  of  mental  cal- 
culation should  be  conscientiously  avoided  The  boy 
called  upon  to  give  the  answer  should  give  the  process 
of  investigation. 


362  philosophy  op  education. 

Geography. 

Geography  maybe  thoroughly  taught,  to  large  classes, 
on  the  collective  system.  The  method  of  suggestive  in- 
terrogation, followed  by,  or  accompanied  with,  cate- 
chetical examination,  seems  well  adapted  for  teaching 
this  subject  to  all  classes  in  an  elementary  school.  No 
branch  of  geography  should  be  taught  without  the  aid 
of  a  map.  Every  collective  lesson  on  geography  should 
be  given  in  connection  with  a  large  map,  which  should 
be  suspended  directly  before  the  class.  When  any 
country,  or  city,  or  river,  or  mountain,  is  spoten  of,  its 
place  u}>on  the  map  should  be  pointed  out,  and  its 
relative  bearings,  boundaries  or  extent  should  be  fully 
explained.  Physical  geography  and  history  should 
always  be  taught  in  connection  with  descriptive  geog- 
raphy.    (See  p.  234.) 

If  a  teacher  can  sketch  well,  he  should  draw  his  own 
maps  upon  the  blackboard.  First,  tracing  the  outline 
of  the  country,  he  mentions  the  various  kingdoms  or 
seas  whose  boundaries  his  chalk  is  tracing;  second,  with 
a  few  jottings  of  his  chalk  he  marks  out  the  principal 
mountain  ranges,  forming  the  great  ridges  or  apexes  of 
the  water-sheds;  third,  he  traces  the  rivers  winding 
their  way  from  iheir  mountain  source  or  sources  to  the 
great  reservoirs  of  the  waters  of  the  globe.  He  pauses 
for  a  moment  to  review  his  work, — he  has  sketched  out 
the  works  of  nature  as  the  hand  of  the  Creator  has  left 
them;  now  he  has  to  begin  to  sketch  the  works  of  art 
and  civilization — he  has  to  people  the  wilderness,  and  to 
trace  the  progressive  steps  of  civilization;  upon  the 
banks  of  the  tidal  rivers,  he  marks  the  site  of  the  great 


GEOGRAPHY.  363 

mercantile  cities;  on  the  shores  ®f  the  mountain  streams 
he  plants  the  names  of  the  oldest  industrial  cities;  on 
the  coal  fields  he  places  those  mighty  manufacturing 
cities  which  have  almost  sprung  into  existence  since  the 
discovery  of  the  steam-engine — that  mightiest  monarch 
of  civilization  and  power,  which  seems  to  control  the 
destinies  of  the  world  ;Jast  of  all,  he  marks  the  sites  of 
those  large  towns  which  form  the  market  places  of  the 
rural  population.  We  said  that  the  work  was  progres- 
sive,— every  fresh  touch  of  the  chalk  is  associated  with 
some  new  idea,  and  every  fresh  idea  has  its  appropriate 
association  with  some  line  or  mark  upon  the  board; — the 
sketch  goes  on, — it  becomes  more  and  more  finished; — 
the  skeleton  becomes  lined  with  sinews,  then  clothed 
with  flesh  and  blood; — every  fresh  step  towards  com- 
pletion excites  new  interest  in  the  minds  of  the  boys, — 
they  wonder  how  a  few  jottings  can  call  up  the  idea  of 
a  mountain  range,  or  how  a  winding  line  can  call  up  the 
idea  of  the  course  of  the  sparkling  river,  or  how  the  lit- 
tle mark  put  for  the  mountain  city  should  awaken,  in 
their  imaginations,  the  sound  of  the  flip  flap,  flap  flip,  of 
water  mills,  and  the  busy  hum  of  industry;  they  wonder, 
but  they  know  not  that  the  visible  picture  which  their 
master  has  drawn,  with  his  chalk,  would  be  dull  and 
lifeless  without  the  living  moral  picture  with  which  it  is 
associated.  Such  a  lesson  is  complete  in  its  parts  and 
perfect  as  a  whole.  It  is  a  complete  exemplification  of 
what  has  been  called  the  constructive  method  of  teaching. 

Map-drawing  is  an  excellent  means  of  teaching  geog- 
raphy. This  exercise,  as  we  before  observed,  should  be 
set  apart  for  home  lessons. 


364  philosophy  of  education. 

Drawing. 

Collective  teaching,  combined  with  the  system  of  home 
studies,  is  best  adapted  for  giving  lessons  on  this  im- 
portant branch  of  school  education.  As  this  truly  use- 
ful branch  of  knowledge  does  not  appear  to  have  re- 
ceived that  amount  of  attention,  in  our  schools  generally, 
which  its  utility  demands,  we  shall  enter  more  fully  into 
the  details  of  the  method  by  which  it  should  be  taught 
in  our  elementary  schools. 

1.    The  teacher  should  first  explain  the  elements  of  form. 

Drawing,  like  all  other  branches  of  instruction,  has  its 
simple  elemetitary  principles;  these  principles  should  be 
learnt  by  the  pupil  before  he  can  be  expected  to  make 
any  satisfactory  progress. 

All  drawing  must  be  based  upon  a  knowledge  of  the 
elenients  of  form.  Before  a  boy  can  draw  a  line  cor- 
rectly he  should  know  something  about  the  nature  of 
that  line. 

All  forms,  whether  in  nature  or  art,  may  be  reduced 
to  a  few  geometrical  elements. 

Straight  lines  should  be  copied  of  various  lengths 
and  positions,  and  next  in  order  should  follow  the  vari- 
ous geometrical  figures  formed  by  straight  lines. 

The  CIRCLE  is  the  simplest  and  most  perfect  of  all 
CURVED  lines;  it,  in  fact,  forms  the  standard  by  which 
we  judge  of  the  relative  degree  of  curvature  of  the 
various  portions  of  any  other  curved  line.  To  draw  a 
circle  by  the  hand  requires  some  skill;  and  the  acquisi- 
tion is  well  deserving  the  trouble.  Curves  of  contrary 
flexure,  that  is,  curves  which  are  convex  at  one  part  and 


DRAWING.  365 

concave  at  another,  have  been  called  the  lines  of  beauty. 
Examples  relating  to  the  circle,  with  various  curved 
figures  more  or  less  depending  upon  it,  should  be  given 
to  the  pupils. 

These  elements  of  form  constitute  the  alphabet  of 
DEAWiNG.  No  satisfactory  progress  can  be  made  in 
drawing  until  the  pupil  has  become  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  these  forms.  You  may  as  well  attempt  to 
teach  a  boy  to  read  before  he  is  acquainted  with  his 
alphabet,  as  give  him  an  axe,  or  any  such  object,  to 
draw  before  he  is  made  acquainted  with  the  different 
kinds  of  lines  found  in  its  outline. 

In  this  way  drawing  is  made  a  useful  instrument  of  a 
higher  kind  of  instruction;  for  the  pupil  is  insensibly, 
and  at  the  same  time  pleasantly,  made  acquainted  with 
the  names  and  properties  of  geometrical  figures.  Why 
should  the  boy  who  is  supposed  to  be  skilful  enough  to 
draw  a  chair  or  a  looking-glass,  remain  ignorant  of  the 
names  of  the  geometrical  elements  of  form  ?  A  child  of 
five  years  of  age  readily  learns  the  names  and  under- 
stands the  construction  of  the  most  useful  geometrical 
figures;  and  not  only  so,  but  he  really  feels  a  pleasure  in 
learning  them.  Now  the  best  way  of  learning  the 
names  and  definitions  of  geometrical  figures  is  actually 
to  draw  them.  Children  feel  as  much  pleasure  in  draw- 
ing beautiful  geometrical  forms,  as  they  do  in  imitating 
the  drawings  of  natural  objects,  more  especially  if  they 
are  taught  to  draw  these  geometrical  forms  by  method. 

The  teaching  of  the  first  facts  of  geometry  ought  to  be 
considered  as  one  of  the  most  important  ends  which  is 
to  be  attained  by  an  elementary  course  of  drawing 
lessons,     It  is  not  practicable,  and,  indeed,  it  is  not  de» 


366  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

sirable  if  it  were  practicable,  to  teach  drawing  without 
embracing  a  certain  amount  of  geometrical  knowledge. 
The  pleasure  of  success  is  the  best  incentive  to  the 
pupil  in  learning  to  draw;  but  if  the  exercises  are  too 
difficult  for  him,  he  will  give  up  in  despair,  believing 
that  he  has  no  genius  for  drawing.  A  teacher  gives  a 
boy  as  a  first  lesson,  a  drawing  of  an  Ass  to  copy; — 
the  boy  labors  earnestly  at  his  task,  for  he  really  would 
like  to  draw  a  donkey,  but  notwithstanding  his  repeated 
efforts,  he  cannot  decidedly  say  whether  his  drawing  is 
more  like  a  horse  than  it  is  like  a  donkey.  That  boy 
should  first  learn  the  alphabet  of  drawing — the  leading 
elements  of  forms— before  he  attempts  to  copy  such 
difficult  pictures. 

2.   The  teacher  should  explain  the  varioua  lines  of  co7istruction 
necessary  for  drawing  a  figure. 

In  these  lines  of  construction  we  bring  principles  to 
aid  the  eye  and  ihe  hand.  The  facility  and  accuracy 
with  which  an  artist  will  copy  any  drawing  depends  not 
more  upon  his  skilful  command  of  the  pencil,  than  upon 
the  method  which  he  adopts,  unconsciously  it  may  be,  in 
determining  the  leading  points  of  the  outline  of  the 
drawing.  The  figure  or  model  to  be  draw;n  should  be 
first  examined  as  a  whole,  and  then  the  leading  points  as 
well  as  the  general  outline  of  the  drawing  should  be  laid 
down,  before  any  of  the  minute  or  subordinate  parts  are 
attempted.  All  beautiful  figures  have  symmetry;  and, 
therefore,  in  constructing  such  figures,  there  may  always 
be  found  some  geometrical  forms  which  will  aid  us  in 
the  construction.  The  habit  of  constructing  figures  in 
this  way,  besides  serving  the  end  for  which  it  is  directly 


DRAWING.  36  Y 

intended,  tends  very  much  to  improve  the  observing  and 
reasoning  powers  of  the  pupil;  it  insensibly  and  grad- 
ually instils  into  the  young  mind  a  knowledge  of  geome- 
trical principles,  and  lays  the  foundation  of  a  more  de- 
monstrative course  of  geometry.  Let  us  take  a  few 
illustrations. 

A  pupil  having  to  draw  an  octagon  for  the  first  time 
would  scarcely  know  how  to  begin  it;  but  a  glance  at 
the  teacher's  lines  of  construction  should  give  him  the 
idea  of  a  method  which  will  enable  him  to  draw  the 
figure  with  facility  and  precision. 

Few  persons,  even  amongst  artists,  can  draw  a  perfect 
ellipse  by  the  hand;  but  by  attending  to  a  few  simple 
principles  of  construction  it  becomes  easy  even  to  a  pupil. 

All  points  and  lines  of  construction  should  be  drawn 
faintly,  in  order  that  they  may  be  readily  erased,  and 
that  they  may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  real 
lines  of  the  drawing.  For  various  illustrations  of  the 
methods  of  construction,  the  reader  may  consult  the 
writer's  work  on  Drawing. 

3.   The  teacher  should  explain  the  manner  of  using  the  pencil  or 
crayon. 

The  drawing  pencil,  or  crayon,  as  the  case  may  be, 
should  be  held  in  the  same  manner  as  the  common 
writing  pen.  In  order  to  give  freedom  of  motion  to  the 
hand,  the  pupil  should  be  accustomed  to  hold  the  pencil 
loosely,  with  the  first  two  fingers  and  the  thumb  at  some 
distance  from  the  point.  Every  line  should  be  seen  as 
it  is  being  drawn,  and,  in  order  to  secure  this,  all  lines 
should  be  drawn  from  left  to  right,  and  from  the  top  to 
the  bottom  of  the  paper.     As  a  general  rule,  lines  should 


368  PHILOSOPHY    OP   EDUCATION. 

be  first  sketched  out  faintly,  and  then  any  inaccuracies 
can  be  corrected  as  the  line  is  being  finished  off.  The 
beginning  and  the  end  of  a  line  should  be  fixed  before 
the  pupil  commences  to  draw  it.  Certain  intermediate 
points  should  also  be  fixed  before  the  whole  line  is  at- 
tempted to  be  drawn.  Great  precision  cannot  be  expected 
from  young  persons  at  first,  nor  sliould  they  be  required  to 
dwell  too  long  upon  any  particular  drawing  at  this  early 
stage  of  their  instruction;  the  patience  of  a  child  should 
never  be  worn  out  by  a  fastidious  regard  to  what  is 
called  accuracy  of  finish.  The  fact  is,  there  is  a  want  of 
flexibility  in  the  muscles  of  the  hand  of  young  children, 
which  time  and  nature  only  can  fully  remedy. 

4.  Proper  drawing  instruments  and  materials  should  he  provided 
for  the  pupils. 
The  pupils  should  be  provided  with  slates,  drawing- 
books,  or  drawing-paper.  If  slates  are  used,  the  pupil 
should  draw  with  a  long,  soft  slate-pencil.  Black-lead 
pencils,  as  well  as  common  slate-pencils,  if  used  in  draw- 
ing, should  be  well-pointed  and  of  sufficient  length  to 
be  used  with  freedom.  If  crayons  are  adopted,  they 
should  be  of  different  degrees  of  hardness,  and  fixed  in 
a  port-crayon,  one  at  each  end.  Some  teachers  may  pre- 
fer pen-and-ink  drawings;  this  mode  of  drawing  is 
exceedingly  useful  and  convenient  for  schools;  in  this 
case,  the  drawings  may  be  first  traced  with  black-lead 
pencil,  and  then  afterwards  completed  with  the  pen  and 
ink.  Each  pupil  should  be  provided  with  a  copy  of 
some  drawing   exercises,*   so   that   he  may,  at  certain 

♦See  Tate's  "  Dniwing-Book  for  Little  Boys  and  Girls,"  containing 
upwards  of  one  liundred  and  thirty  drawing  exercises.  Price  1*.  6rf. 
Longman  &Co. 


DRAWING.  36d 

periods,  go   on    with    his    work   without   the   constant 
supervision  of  the  master. 

5.  Ths  pupth  should  then  draw  the  outlines  of  familiar  objects. 

After  the  pupil  has  been  made  acquainted  with  the 
leading  elements  of  form,  he  will  find  much  interest  in 
tracing  the  outlines  of  familiar  objects.  Outline  draw- 
ings, it  will  be  observed,  are  not  really  representations 
of  the  objects,  for  they  want  the  touches  of  light  and 
shade,  as  well  as  some  other  artistic  artifices,  requisite 
for  forming  a  true  picture.  Notwithstanding  this,  the 
drawings  are  sufficiently  like  the  objects  which  they  are 
intended  to  represent,  so  as  to  interest  the  child  in  the 
resemblance.  The  pupil  should  first  copy  from  the 
drawing  of  the  object,  and  then  he  should  have  the 
object  itself  placed  directly  before  him  to  be  drawn  in 
outline.  The  master  should  carefully  explain  to  his 
pupils  the  different  geometrical  forms  to  which  the 
various  parts  of  the  outline  drawing  may  be  referred. 

6.  The  teacher  should  explain  the  method  of  drawing  a  figure  on 

the  llachhoard. 

The  teacher  should  construct  the  figure  (which  his 
pupils  are  about  to  draw)  on  the  blackboard,  on  an  en- 
larged SCALE.  All  the  lines  of  construction  should  be 
explained  by  him  as  he  draws  them,  and  all  the  pupils 
should  go  along  with  him,  drawing  line  after  line  as 
their  master  proceeds  with  his  exposition.  After  such 
explanations,  the  master  may  leave  his  pupils  for  a  time 
to  copy  the  drawing  from  their  sheets  with  more  care 
and  exactness.  The  impetus  which  the  master  thus 
gives  to  his  class  will  be  sufficient  to  render  it  self-acting 


370  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

for  the  time  which  he  may  require  to  bestow  on  the 
other  classes  in  the  school. 

When  a  model  is  to  be  drawn,  it  should  be  placed 
before  the  pupils  in  a  position  similar  to  that  in  which  it 
is  given  in  the  drawing  copy:  the  master  should  then 
show  the  pupils  hoio  and  why  he  draws  the  different  lines 
in  his  representation. 

There  are  a  few  important  points  upon  which  children 
require  to  be  especially  giiided.  In  drawing  vertical 
lines,  they  are  very  liable  to  make  the  lines  lean  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  lines  of  ordinary  writing.  Chil- 
dren should  constantly  have  their  attention  directed  to 
the  proportion  of  the  parts  of  a  figure;  as,  for  example, 
a  line  in  a  drawing  may  be  exactly  the  same  length  as 
another  line,  or  it  may  be  twice  or  thrice  the  length. 
The  position  of  lines  should  be  carefully  noted;  as,  for 
example,  one  line  may  be  perpendicular  to  another  line; 
or  a  line  may  be  drawn  exactly  between  the  vertical 
and  the  horizontal;  or  a  line  may  rise  to  the  left  of  the 
horizontal;  and  so  on.  They  are  very  apt  to  draw  a 
line  before  its  exact  position  has  been  realized  in  their 
own  minds.  Children,  if  left  to  themselve-,  will  often 
begin  with  some  unimportant  detail,  and  thus  go  on 
drawing  without  method;  here  the  master  should  show 
the  child  what  lines  to  begin  with,  how  to  get  a  good 
general  outline,  and  then  how  the  minute  parts  should 
be  finished  oiT. 

7.    The  teacher  should  carefully  inspect  the  tcork  done  by  the 
pup /Is. 

While  the  pupils  are  at  work,  the  master  should  move 
rapidly  amongst  them,  giving  hints  to  some,  correcting 


DRAWING.  3Yl 

the  errors  of  others,  and  in  all  cases  showing  tl>em  how 
they  should  do  it,  rather  than  actually  doing  it  for  them. 
A  few  minutes  at  the  close  of  each  lesson  should  be 
devoted  to  the  examination  of  the  slates  or  books  of  the 
pupils.  The  drawings  done  at  home  should  also  be 
carefully  examined  by  the  master. 

8.  The  master  should  give  his  pupils  drawing  copies  for  home 

exercises. 

Our  present  systems  of  elementary  education  seem  to 
make  too  little  provision  for  home  instruction.  Drawing 
at  home  is  admirably  adapted  for  supplying  the  place 
of  evening  tasks,  which  were  once  given  in  the  form  of 
columns  of  spelling,  or  paragraphs  of  geography.  Draw- 
ing is  rather  an  amusement  than  a  task,  and  children 
need  very  little  persuasion  to  induce  them  to  devote 
some  portion  of  their  leisure  time  to  this  delightful  study. 
In  home  studies  especially,  children  like  to  show  some 
evidence  of  their  application,  with  the  view  of  compar- 
ing the  work  of  one  week  with  that  of  another.  Exer- 
cises on  drawing,  as  we  have  already  observed,  are  well 
calculated  to  effect  this  end. 

9.  The  more  advanced  pupils  should  draw  the  figures  upon  an 

enlarged  scale. 

Young  persons  can  draw  small  figures  much  more 
easily,  than  they  can  draw  large  ones.  Their  eye  more 
readily  catches  the  proportions  of  small  figures  than  of 
large  ones;  and  their  hand  is  better  able  to  draw  short 
lines  than  long  ones.  Children  have  a  more  perfect  per- 
ception of  an  object  of  moderate  size  then  they  have  of 
a  large  object;  the  eye  takes  in  all  the  parts  of  the  object 


372  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

more  readily  in  the  former  case  than  in  the  latter  case, 
and  thus  a  more  perfect  picture  is  formed  upon  the  retina. 
Hence  it  is  in  accordance  with  nature  that  a  young  per- 
son should  first  copy  moderate-size  drawings  before  he 
attempts  to  draw  upon  a  large  scale.  But  after  he  has 
drawn  the  figures  upon  a  small  scale,  he  should  tlien 
draAV  them  upon  a  scale  of  twice,  thrice,  or  even  four 
times  the  size.  The  drawing  of  figures  on  a  large  scale 
gives  freedom  and  power  to  the  hand,  and  precision  to 
the  judgment.  But,  besides  this,  the  drawing  of  figures 
on  different  scales  forms  one  of  the  most  useful  lessons 
in  practical  mathematics.  If  a  child  is  required  to  draw 
a  figure  on  double  the  scale  of  any  given  figure,  he  sees 
that  if  he  takes  the  base  of  his  drawing  double  the 
length  of  the  base  of  the  original  figure,  then  all  the 
parts  of  his  figure  will  be  respectively  double  the  corre- 
sponding parts  of  the  original  figure;  and  so  on  to  otlier 
cases:  in  this  way  he  -will  draw  a  figure  of  the  same 
form  as  the  original,  the  only  difference  between  the 
two  figures  being  that  one  is  drawn  upon  a  larger  scale 
than  the  other. 

10.  After  d/r awing  from  copy^  the  pupils  should  draw  from 
familiar  objects. 

Copying  is  the  first  step  in  drawing.  It  is  one  of  the 
easiest  acts  of  imitation.  When  a  pupil  makes  a  copy 
of  a  drawing,  he  merely  transfers  the  lines  on  one  sheet 
of  paper  to  another;  but  in  this  exercise  of  the  faculty 
of  imitation,  some  reasoning  and  judgment  are  involved, 
especially  if  the  pupil  is  called  upon  to  use  certain  arti- 
fices of  construction.  To  give  a  representation  of  a 
natural  object,  just  as  it  appears  to  us,  is  much  more 


DRAWING.  373 

difficult  than  to  make  a  copy  of  a  drawing  already  made 
of  the  object.  The  lines  which  we  draw  in  this  case  are 
not  the  exact  counterparts  of  the  corresponding  lines  in 
the  object,  but  merely  representations  of  them,  drawn 
so  as  to  convey  to  the  organs  of  perception  an  impression 
of  the  object.  In  order  to  understand  how  this  effect  is 
produced,  we  must  be  acquainted  with  the  laws  of  vision, 
with  the  effects  of  light  and  shade,  and  with  certain 
principles  of  perspective  relating  to  the  foreshortening 
of  lines,  &c.  In  a  course  of  elementary  instruction  in 
drawing,  therefore,  the  pupil  should  first  exercise  his  eye 
and  hand  in  the  copying  of  certain  geometrical  forms  and 
simple  drawings  of  natural  objects,  before  he  commences 
drawing  from  actual  objects.  It  is,  moreover,  necessary 
that  the  pupil  should  first  copy  the  drawing  of  a  natural 
object,  before  he  proceeds  to  give  a  represetation  of  it 
as  it  would  appear  to  him  when  placed  before  him. 
While  the  pupil  is  thus  acquiring  steadiness  of  hand  and 
accuracy  of  eye,  he  is  at  the  same  time  gradually  be- 
coming acquainted  with  the  art  of  perspective,  or  the  true 
mode  of  representing  solid  figures  on  a  flat  surface.  In 
order  that  the  drawing  may  be  of  service  to  the  pupil, 
the  object  should  be  placed  before  him  nearly  in  the 
same  position  as  that  in  which  it  is  represented  in  the 
drawing.  A  further  change  of  view  will  sufiiciently  task 
the  skill  of  the  pupil.  The  muster  should  be  at  some 
pains  to  show  the  coincidence  of  the  lines  of  the  represen- 
tation with  the  actual  appearance.  He  should  show  them, 
for  example,  why  all  the  vertical  lines  in  the  object  are 
also  drawn  vertical  in  the  picture;  why  certain  horizontal 
lines  in  the  object  are  drawn  rising  or  falling;  as  the  case 
may  be,  from  the  horizontal  line  in  the  picture;  why  cer- 


374  PHILOSOPHY   OF   EDUCATION. 

tain  lines  in  the  object  are  drawn  much  shorter  in  the 
picture  than  they  really  are  in  the  object;  and  so  on,  as  ex- 
plained in  the  writer's  work  on  "Drawing  for  Schools." 
The  best  stand  for  the  drawing  models  is  a  common 
table.  They  may  be  raised,  if  necessary,  by  placing 
them  on  a  box  or  any  rectangular  object. 

1 1 .  Ad/vantages  of  small  drawings  jor  children. 

Some  teachers  suspend  large  drawings  before  their 
class  to  be  copied.  This  plan  is  in  many  respects  higlily 
eligible  for  simultaneous  instruction  when  the  pupils  can 
be  placed  directly  in  front  of  the  drawing;  but  when  this 
cannot  be  done,  the  figure  will  appear  foreshortened  and 
distorted  to  those  pupils  on  each  side  of  it.  It  should 
also  be  observed,  that  drawing  from  a  large  figure  is  not 
strictly  an  act  of  imitation,  for  the  copy  made  by  the  pupil 
is  what  the  figure  would  appear  to  be,  supposing  it  placed 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  eye  as  the  copy.  Besides, 
these  very  large  figures  are  not  adapted  for  home  in- 
struction. Now,  when  each  pupil  is  provided  with  a 
drawing,  he  is  able  to  place  it  directly  before  him  at  the 
same  distance  from  his  eye  as  the  copy  which  he  is  about 
to  make;  hence  he  finds  it  more  easy  to  copy  a  small 
drawing  so  placed  than  to  copy  a  large  drawing  suspended 
at  a  distance  from  his  eye.  But  the  greatest  advantage 
of  small  drawings  is  that  they  may  be  taken  home  by 
the  pupils,  and  co])ied  in  their  leisure  hours. 

Chalk  drawings,  executed  however  roughly  by 
THE  MASTER  ON  THE  BLACKBOARD,  are  really  much  more 
efficient  means  of  instruction  than  the  suspending  of 
large  drawing  shccits  before  the  class. 


DE  AWING.  ^75 

12.   The  pupih  should  he  taught  to  draw  from  Models^  after 
the  Method  of  Bupuis. 

A  boy  may  be  able  to  make  excellent  copies  of  draw- 
ings or  pictures,  without  being  able  to  give  anything  like 
a  tolerable  representation  of  the  simplest  natural  object; 
this  requires  distinct  cultivation.  Model  drawing  is  the 
best  way  of  teaching  beginners  to  draw  from  nature. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  teaching 
drawing  from  models: — 

(1.)  Natural  objects  are  generally  too  difficult  for  the 
learner  to  begin  with;  whereas  the  models  can  be  con- 
structed according  to  a  progressive  order  of  difficulty. 

(2.)  The  models  are  always  under  our  control;  they 
may  be  readily  placed  at  any  distance  from  the  pupil, 
or  in  any  desirable  position. 

(3.)  They  may  be  made  to  represent  various  geomet- 
rical forms,  and  owing  to  this  uniformity  of  shape,  the 
drawings  taken  from  one  set  of  models  may  be  compared 
with  those  taken  from  another  set. 

(4.)  The  models  may  be  used  in  combination  with  one 
another,  and  thus  the  different  parts  of  a  complex  figure 
may  be  first  drawn  separately  before  they  are  drawn  in 
combination. 

(5.)  The  system  of  model  drawing  is  especially  calcu- 
lated to  exercise  and  develop  the  powers  of  observation 
and  comparison,  and  forms  the  best  introduction  to  a 
system  of  mathematical  perspective. 

The  models,  which  the  pupils  are  required  to  draw, 
are  made  of  wood  or  some  other  light  material;  and  they 
are  placed  in  a  proper  position  before  the  pupil,  in  order 
to  be  drawn  by  him,  on  paper,  or  on  a  common  slate.    He 


si 6  PHlLOSOt*HY    OF    EDTTCATlO]^. 

is  taught  certain  easy  processes,  by  which  he  is  enabled 
to  find  out  the  apparent  size  and  shape  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  model,  so  as  to  give  its  true  representation 
on  paper. 

The  method  of  drawing  from  models  was  invented  by 
M.  Dupuis.  Its  grand  feature  consists  in  making  per- 
spective drawing  a  matter  of  observation  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil,  rather  than  a  subject  of  mathematical  reason- 
ing. The  principles,  practice,  and  advantages  of  the 
method  are  fully  explained  in  the  author's  work  on 
"Drawing  for  Schools." 

Writing. 

This  bn^nch  of  education  may  be  thoroughly  taught, 
in  a  common  school,  on  the  collective  system.  In  con- 
ducting such  lessons  as  w^'iting,  it  is  desirable  that  the 
master  should  exercise  his  classes,  in  all  their  movements, 
in  habits  of  military  precision  and  promptitude.  In  order 
to  follow  out  the  collective  system  in  relation  to  this 
subject,  the  writing  to  be  copied  should  be  written  by 
the  master  on  the  blackboard,  or  large  sheets  containing 
copies  should  be  suspended  before  the  class.  After  the 
copy  books  and  pens  have  been  distributed,  the  master 
gives  the  order, — "open  copy  books;"  then  all  the 
pupils  in  the  class  must  obey  the  order  at  the  same  mo- 
ment: the  master  may  next  say, — "take  up  pens;"  then 
all  the  pupils  must  in  like  manner,  promptly  and  exactly 
obey  the  order:  he  may  next  say, — "prepare  to  write," 
every  boy,  in  this  case,  must  place  his  copybook  and  his 
own  body  in  the  proper  position  for  writing,  this  position 
having  been  previously  explained  by  the  master;  he  may 
now  say, — "begin  writing;"  and  all  the  class  commence 


GEOMETEY   AND   MENSURATION.  Zl1 

their  work  at  the  same  moment.  Similiar  orders  may  be 
given  when  the  pupils  have  finished  the  first  line.  The 
master  must  then  rapidly  inspect  the  copy  books,  giving 
a  him  to  each  pupil  as  he  passes  him,  and  afterwards  he 
will  make  some  more  enlarged  remarks  upon  the  writing, 
addressed  to  the  whole  class,  as  it  generally  happens  that 
the  faults  of  one  boy  are  common  to  the  whole  class. 
We  do  not  mean  to  say  that  an  intelligent  teacher  will 
slavishly  follow  this  plan,  or  indeed  any  other  plan  that 
might  be  proposed — at  the  same  time  it  should  be  ob- 
served, that  the  plan  here  given  must  contain  the  leading 
elements  of  every  efiicient  plan  which  might  be  devised. 
Every  teacher  will,  of  course,  adapt  the  details  of  a  plan 
to  suit  his  peculiar  tastes  and  habits  of  thought. 

Mulhauser's  method  of  writing  seems  to  be  well 
adapted  forgiving  the  first  elementary  lessons  in  writing; 
but  the  method  should  not  be  carried  beyond  its  legiti- 
mate limits.  In  order  to  give  a  finish  to  writing,  no 
method  should  supersede  that  of  carefully  prepared  copy- 
heads,  such  as  those  given  by  Butterworth,  Foster, 
Story,  and  others. 

Practical  Geometry  and  Mensuration. 

The  pupils  should  be  taught  these  subjects  after  the 
collective  system  of  teaching,  followed  up  by  individual 
exercises.  Each  pupil  in  the  class  should  be  provided 
with  a  pair  of  compasses,  a  ruler,  and  if  possible  a  scale, 
having  a  diagonal  scale  of  equal  parts  on  one  side,  and  a 
protractor  on  the  other,  and  a  little  triangular  square  (see 
the  author's  Geometry  and  Mensuration).  The  master 
should  be  provided  with  a  large  pair  of  wooden  compasses, 
having  a  chalk  holder  at  the  extremity  of  one  of  its  legs; 


378 


PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION, 


a  long  ruler;  a  large  wooden  protractor,  which  need  not 
be  very  exactly  made,  and  a  large  X  square.  He  should 
construct  his  figures  without  the  aid  of  any  other  instru- 
ments. 

The  master  should  draw  the  geometrical  problem  on 
the  blackboard  on  a  large  scale,  taking  care  to  excite  the 
attention  of  the  pupils  in  the  class,  time  after  time,  by 
putting  various  suggestive  questions  to  them,  such  as 
we  have  given  in  connection  with  the  teaching  of  draw- 
ing, &c. 

Familiar  and  common-sense  expositions  (without  as- 
piring to  strictness  of  demonstration)  should  be  given 
relative  to  the  methods  of  construction.  In  the  same 
manner,  the  leading  problems  of  mensuration  should  be 
taught. 

A  lesson  on  Geometry.  Subject — A  perpendicular,  a 
right  angle.  Illustrated  method.  From  the  concrete 
to  the  abstract. 

When  a  man  stands  upright,  he  stands  perpendicular 
to  the  floor.  The  floor  of  this  room  is  level  or  horizontal; 
the  wall  of  the  room  is  vertical,  and  stands  perpendicular 


HORIZONTAL  LINK. 


to  the  level  floor.     The  surface  of  still  water  is  level  or 
horizontal;  a  plummet  line  hangs  vertically ;  tlie  plummet 


GEOMETRY   AND   MENSURATION. 


379 


line  is  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  plummet  line  neither  inclines  to  the  one 
side  nor  to  the  other,  that  is  to  say,  the  openings  or  angles 
which  it  forms  with  the  horizontal  line,  on  each  side,  are 
equal  to  each  other. 


Is  the  line  c  D  perpendicular  to  ab?  To  which  side 
does  it  incline  ?  On  which  side  does  it  form  the  greater 
angle  or  opening  ?  To  which  side  does  c  e  incline  ?  On 
which  side  does  c  e  make  the  greater  angle  ?  Whether 
does  CD  or  ce  approach  nearer  to  the  perpendicular 
position  ?  To  which  side  does  the  line  c  f  incline  ?  To 
neither  the  one  side  nor  the  other.  Then  the  angles  on 
each  side  are  eqml  to  each  other,  and  they  are  called 
riffht  angles, 

A  lesson  on  Practical  Geometry.  Subject — To  erect  a 
perpendicular.  Mixed  method.  Illustrative,  construc- 
tive, &c. 

I  want  to  show  you  how  to  draw  one  line  perpen- 
dicular to  another.  From  the  given  point,  or  mark,  d, 
in  the  straight  line  a  b,  I  want  to  erect  a  perpendicular y 
that  is,  a  line  which  will  neither  incline  to  the  one  side 
nor  to  the  other. 


880  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

On  each  side  of  d,  I  take  d  f,  of  the  same  length  as  d 
E.  (The  teacher  is  supposed  to  construct  the  figure  as 
he  describes  it.)  I  open  the  legs  of  my  compasses  so 
that  the  opening  between  the  points  shall  be  greater 
than  D  E  or  d  f;  I  place  one  point  of  my  compasses  on 
the  mark  or  point  e,  and  sweep  a  portion  of  a  circle;  I 
now  place  the  point  of  the  compasses  on  the  mark  or  point 
f,  and  sweep  a  portion  of  another  circle,  cutting:  the 
former  in  a  point  which  we  shall  call  c;  I  join  d  and  c, 
and  the  line  d  c  will  be  perpendicular  to  the  line  a  b. 

I  shall  now  explain  to  you  why  this  mode  of  construc- 
tion causes  c  d  to  be  perpendicular  to  a  b. 

There  are  two  things  in  the  construction  which  cause 
the  line  d  c  to  be  perpendicular  to  a  b:  First,  d  e  is  of 
the  same  length  as  df;  second,  the  two  circles  were 
swept  with  the  same  radius  or  opening  of  the  compasses. 
These  two  things  cause  the  point  c  to  lie  directly  over, 
or  perpendicularly  over  the  point  d.  If  the  second  radius 
or  opening  of  the  compasses  be  taken  less  than  the  first 

70 


opening  (here  the  teacher  must  describe  the  figure), 
how  will  the  line  c  d  be  inclined  ?  It  will  be  inclined 
towards  the  side  f.  Why  ?  For  the  point  where  the 
two  circles  cut  each  other  must  lie  nearer  to  Fthan  to  e. 
But  when  the  openings  of  the  compasses  are  the  same, 
the  point  where  the  circles  cut  each  other  lies  neither  more 
towards  f  than   towards  e,  and  therefore  the  line  d  c  is 


ALGEBRA.  381 

equally  inclined  to  a  b,  tliat  is  to  say,  d  c  is  perpendicular 

to  AB. 

Ohervations.  Although  this  may  not  be  what  is  called 
a  logical  demonstration,  yet  it  most  certainly  gives  the 
pupil  A  SUFFICIENT  REASON  for  Concluding  that  the  line 
c  D  is  perpendicular  to  a  b.  It  is  further  worthy  of  ob- 
servation, that  such  familiar  expositions  prepare  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  for  following  more  strictly  logical 
demonstrations.  I  am  well  aware  that  some  persons 
are  disposed  to  say  that  the  shortest  course  is  to  carry 
the  pupil  through  Euclid's  Elements;  but,  after  the 
experience  of  a  quarter  of  a  centrry  as  a  mathematical 
lecturer,  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  it  is  quite 
impracticable  to  teach  young  persons  the  elements  of 
Euclid  until  they  have  gone  over  some  initiatory  course 
of  demonstrative  geometry,  by  which  the  mind  of  the 
pupil  is  led  to  pass  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract.  It 
is  true  that  this  initiatory  process  of  demonstration  is 
always  lengthy;  but  it  acts  like  a  mechanical  power  ^  for  what 
we  lose  in  time  we  gain  in  force. 

Algebra. 

This  subject  should  be  taught  by  a  demonstrative 
method, — proceeding  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract. 
The  leading  simple  elementary  operations  of  quantities 
should  be  first  taught  in  connection  with  the  solution  of 
problems. 

A  lesson  on  Algebra.     Subject — Equations,  &c. 

Problem.  A  man  bought  a  cow  and  a  horse  for  28/.; 
now  the  horse  cost  twice  as  much  as  the  cow  and  41, 
more:  what  did  he  pay  for  the  cow  ? 


382  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

Here  the  problem  tells  us  that  the  value  of  the  cow 
and  the  horse   equals   twenty-eight  pounds.     I  may  then 
write  this  down  in  the  form  of  an  equation,  thus — 
one  cow  -|-  one  horse  =  38^. 

Now  I  must  put  the  horse  into  cows.     What  does  the 

question  tell  us  about  the  value  of  the  horse  ?   That  a 

horse  is  worth  two  cows  and   4/.   more.     Then  I  may 

write  down — 

one  horse  =  2  cows  +  4Z. 

We  shall  now  write  down,  or  substitute,  this  value  of 
the  horse  in  the  first  equation;  thus, 

one  cow  -j-  3  cows  +  4Z.  =  28/. 
What  have  I  here  substituted  for  one  horse  ? 
Putting  the  cows  together,  we  have, 

3  cows  -f-  Al.  =  28/. 
If  I  take  away  the  4/.  from  the  left  side  of  this  equa- 
tion, what  must  I  take  away  from  the  other  side  to  keep 
up  the  equality  ?  Let  us  do  this, — then, 

3  cows  =  24/., 
.  •.    one  cow  =  i  of  24/.  =  8/. 

that  is  to  say,  the  value  of  the  cow  is  8/. 

Or  thus,  more  symbolically.     Proceeding  as  before,  we 

have, 

one  cow  +  one  horse  =  28/. 

Let  us,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  put  a;  for  the  value 
of  the  cow  in  pounds,  that  is,  let 
one  cow  =  x, 
but  one  horse  =  2  cows  -|-  4/., 
.  •.     one  horse  =  2x  -\-  41. 

Why  do  I  put  2  x  for  the  value  of  "2  cows"  ?  Be- 
cause X  pounds  is  the  value  of  one  cow,  and  therefore  2  x 
pounds  will  be  the  value  of  two  cows. 


CHEMISTRY.  383 

Now  let  us  put  these  values  for  the  cow  and  the  horse 
in  our  first  equation.  First  writing  x  for  the  cow  and  2x 
4-  4/.  for  the  horse,  we  get, 

x-\-2x-\-4:l.  =2SL, 
.'.     dx+U.  =  281. 

What  have  I  done  here?  Exactly,  an  x  added  to  2a; 
will  make  3  x,  in  the  same  manner  as  one  cow  added  to 
two  cows  will  make  three  cows. 

In  order  to  leave  nothing  but  x's  on  the  left  side  of 
this  equation,  what  must  I  do  ? 

.-.  3«  =  24^., 

.-.     X  =  iof  24^.  =  8^., 

that  is  to  say,  the  value  of  the  cow  is  8/. 

Mechanical  and  Physical  Science. 

All  our  instructions  in  these  sciences  should  be  based 
on  observation  and  experiment.  The  methods  of  inter- 
rogation and  ellipses  are  best  adapted  for  giving  familiar 
lectures  on  these  subjects. 

A  lesson  on  Chemistry .  Subject — To  distinguish  iron 
from  copper.  Mixed  method.  Experimental,  interrog- 
ative, elliptical,  &c. 

Properties  derived  prom  observation.  What  are 
the  names  of  these  metals?  The  one  is  called  iron,  the 
other  copper.  The  color  of  the  copper  is  reddish-yellow, 
that  of  the  iron  dark  grey.  They  have  some  properties 
in  common.  They  both  have  a  peculiar  glitter  or  lustre, 
called  the  metallic  lustre,  or  the  lustre  common  to  all 
metals.  Polished  wood  has  a  lustre,  but  it  is  not  the 
metallic  lustre.  I  can  readily  scratch  the  copper  with  my 
knife,  but  I  cannQt  so  easily   scratch  the  iron;  what 


384  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

inference  do  you  draw  from  this  ?  Copper  is  softer  than 
iron.  They  may  be  both  hammered  out, — they  are  both 
malleable.  It  takes  a  very  intense  heat  to  melt  them, — 
they  are  not  easily  melted  or  fused.  But  they  are  both 
drawn  out  into  wires, — they  are  both  ductile. 

Uses.  Name  the  uses  of  iron.  Name  the  uses  of 
copper.     On  what  properties  do  these  uses  depend? 

Ores  of  iron  and  copper.  This  is  a  specimen  of 
iron  (yre,  that  of  cop])er  ore;  the  one  is  called  iron  pyrites, 
the  other  copper  pyrites;  the  one  is  called  sulphuret  of 
iron,  being  composed  of  sulphur  and  iron,  the  other  is 
called  sulphuret  of  copper,  being  composed  of  stilphur 
and  copper.  Compare  their  coloi-s.  The  copper  ore  has 
the  decider  yellow  color.  I  can  scratch  the  copper  ore 
with  my  knife,  but  T  cannot  scratch  the  iron  ore, — the 
copper  ore  is  softer  than  the  iron  ore. 

Chemical  properties  or  test.  Here  is  a  solution 
of  sulphate  of  copper.  What  is  its  color?  what  is  its 
composition  ?  Here  is  a  solution  of  iron.  What  is  its 
color,  &c.? 

Here  are  two  glasses, — to  the  first  I  add  a  little  of 
the  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  iron,  and  to  the  other  a 
little  of  the  sulphate  of  copper.  To  these  I  add  a  few 
drops  of  the  tincture  of  nut  galls, — the  first  becomes 
hlack., — the  second  is  slightly  discolored. 

Here  are  two  glasses  containing  pure  water, — to  the 
first  I  add  a  few  drops  of  sulphate  oj  iron^  and  to  the 
second  a  few  drops  of  sulphate  of  copper.  To  these  I  first 
add  a  drop  of  ammonia, — a  light  precipitate  is  formed 
in  both  glasses.  What  are  these  precipitates?  Now  so 
far  we  have  not  nrrivcd  at  any  decided  test  as  tp  the 


NATURAL  HISTORY.  386 

nature  of  the  two  substances;  but  I  now  add  to  each  a 
larger  quantity  of  ammonia, — in  the  first  glass  the  pre- 
cipitate is  redtssolved,  and  a  beautiful  deep  blue  color  is 
formed, — in  the  second  glass  the  precipitate  remains 
unchanged.     And  so  on. 

Natural  History.* 

Natural  History,  as  a  branch  of  Education,  has  been 
almost  entirely  neglected  in  our  Schools,  although  it 
treats  of  objects  with  which  we  come  daily  and  hourly 
into  contact,  throughout  the  whole  course  of  our  lives. 
Much  time  is  devoted  to  subjects  which  have  but  a  remote 
and  indirect  bearing  on  the  pupil's  future  career:  yet 
how  few  there  are  who  come  out  of  the  Elementary,  or 
even  Grammar  School,  with  the  knowledge  of  the  name 
and  history  of  the  little  plant  which  grows  at  the  side  of 
the  play-ground,  or  of  the  rock  which  appears  in  the 
neighboring  valley. 

For  the  neglect  of  Natural  History  in  our  Schools, 
Training  Colleges  are  not  a  little  to  blame,  for  they  have 
rarely  given  it  an  adequate  place  in  their  curriculum; 
and  the  consequence  has  been  that  few  teachers  have  ac- 
quired a  knowledge  of  the  subject,  or  become  imbued 
with  a  love  of  Natural  History  pursuits.  The  techni- 
calities of  the  science  have  proved  a  stumbling  block  to 
many,  who  have  not  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  special 
collegiate  instruction.  But  an  intelligent  teacher  need 
not  be  scared  away  by  such  difliculties,  for  they  may  be 
as  easily  surmounted  as  the  preliminary  obstacles  which 
bar  the  entrance  into  mathematics  or  classics.      Indeed, 

*  Communicated  by  the  author's  brother,  Mr.  Geo.  Tate,  F.  G.  S. 
M 


386  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

we  know  no  class  of  men  for  whom  Natural  History- 
studies  are  more  fitted  than  for  teachers.  Most  of  them 
have  sufficient  leisure  for  these  pursuits,  which  have  this 
peculiar  advantage,  that  while  they  improve  the  mind 
they  give  health  to  the  body.  What  more  beneficial  to 
the  teacher,  than  to  escape  from  the  crowded  school- 
room, and  to  wander  over  green  fields  and  wild  moors, 
through  shady  forests,  or  along  the  solitary  shore,  and  to 
examine,  as  he  passes,  the  lovely  flower,  blushing  beneath 
the  hedge;  the  rock  forming  the  picturesque  cliff;  the 
insects  flitting  in  the  air;  or  the  finny  tribes  sporting  in 
the  waters! 

The  introduction  of  Natural  History  as  a  prominent 
subject  of  school  instruction  would,  we  are  persuaded, 
not  only  impart  valuable  knowledge,  but  also  improve 
the  taste  of  the  pupils,  and  furnish  them  with  healthful 
sources  of  enjoyment.  It  would  be  an  efficient  means  of 
mental  training,  well  suited  to  children;  for  it  would 
teach  how  to  observe,  to  note  qualities  and  forms,  to  mark 
agreements  and  differences,  and  how  to  describe  natural 
objects  in  precise  and  distinctive  language.  The  higher 
faculties  of  the  mind  are  also  called  into  exercise,  in  dis- 
covering the  relations  which  the  varied  productions  of 
nature  have  to  each  other,  and  in  grouping  and  classify- 
ing them  according  to  these  relations. 

There  is  probably  no  occupation  which  might  not  be 
more  or  less  benefitted  by  a  knowledge  of  Natural  His- 
tory; it  has  a  direct  bearing  on  medicine,  agriculture, 
gardening,  mining,  and,  indeed,  most  mechanical  employ- 
ments; but  to  the  emigrant — and  in  these  days  many  of 
our  fellow-countrymen  seek  in  distant  colonies  a  more 
profitable  field  of  labor  than  they  can  find  in  their  native 


NATURAL    HISTORY.  387 

land — it  is  of  incalculable  value.  Through  ignorance  of 
minerals,  quantities  of  Iron  Pyrites,  which  have  the 
yellow,  glittering  aspect  of  the  noble  metal,  but  which 
are  comparatively  worthless,  have  been  sent  from  dis- 
tant lands  to  England,  under  the  belief  that  they  con- 
tained gold.  Not  long  ago,  a  California  adventurer 
picked  up  a  bright  transparent  crystal,  which  he  imag- 
ined was  a  diamond,  and  for  which  he  refused  200^. ;  he 
brought  it  to  England,  and  learned  that  it  was  worth- 
less. A  little  knowledge  of  Mineralogy,  which  might 
have  been  given  in  an  Elementary  School,  would  have 
taught  him  that  this  crystal,  which  he  prized  so  highly, 
was  only  a  six-sided  prism  of  quartz,  and  that  it  could 
not  be  a  diamond,  since  this  valuable  gem  never  assumes 
that  form. 

It  is  no  slight  recommendation  of  Natural  History, 
that  the  materials  for  its  study  are  inexhaustible,  and 
that  they  lie  in  every  man's  path.  Hence  it  is,  that  he 
who  has  received  elementary  instruction  in  this  depart- 
ment of  science  is  ever  brought  into  connection  with  the 
beautiful,  the  wonderful  and  the  perfect;  he  can  inter- 
rogate Nature,  and  understand  her  responses;  he  is  sur- 
rounded with  familiar  friends — though  solitary,  he  is 
never  alone — rocks,  plants  and  animals  are  to  him  min- 
istering spirits,  full  of  hidden  meanings,  and  ready  to 
contribute  to  his  improvement  and  happiness. 

To  children.  Natural  History  can  be  most  efficiently 
taught  out  of  doors.  Here,  if  anywhere,  pleasure  may 
be  combined  with  instruction.  For  this  purpose,  rambles 
should  be  taken  into  the  country  pretty  frequently, 
when  the  weather  is  favorable.  Let  Botany,  for  exam- 
ple, be  the  subject  studied:  the  teacher  should  visit  with 


388  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

his  pupils  some  pleasant  spot  where  the  wild  flowers 
grow  in  profusion;  the  pupils  should  gather  these  plants, 
and  the  teacher,  seated,  it  may  be,  on  a  grassy  hillock, 
or  on  a  jutting  rock,  should,  making  use  of  the  materials 
collected,  explain  their  character,  structure  and  relations. 
Nor  will  the  intelligent  teacher  neglect  to  link  with 
direct  instruction  the  legends  and  the  historical  or  re- 
markable events  of  the  district,  so  as  to  invest  the  nat- 
ural objects  with  local  associations,  giving  a  deeper  in- 
terest to  his  subject.  The  rector  of  an  academy  in  Scot- 
land, who  is  an  accomplished  Entomologist,  acts  the 
peripatetic  philosopher  with  his  pupils,  and  from  his 
school  several  good  naturalists  have  gone  forth;  and  we 
read,  not  long  ago,  an  account  of  a  National  School  in 
the  south  of  England,  where  the  children  had  made  no 
inconsiderable  progress  in  Botany.  We  are  persuaded 
that  Natural  History  could  be  taught  to  children  even 
from  an  early  age,  without  materially  interfering  with 
the  time  devoted  to  other  branches;  and  we  may  here- 
after enter  into  more  practical  details  on  the  subject. 
In  the  meantime,  we  would  ask  any  intelligent  teacher 
— would  not  the  adoption  of  some  such  plan  as  we  pro- 
pose have  a  healtliful  influence  both  on  himself  and  his 
pupils  ?  Would  it  not  relieve  the  tedium  of  the  ordi- 
nary school  routine,  carried  out  as  it  is  for  the  most  part 
in  confined  apartments;  and  while  opening  out  new 
sources  of  instruction  and  enjoyment,  would  it  not  lay 
the  foundation  of  much  future  happiness?  Let  him 
fairly  attempt  to  work  out  our  suggestion,  and  we  are 
sure  of  a  satisfactory  result. 


SCHOOL   OEGANIZATION,  389 


Part  V. 
ON  SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION  AND  DISCIPLINE. 


SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION. 

School  organization  has  respect  to  all  those  mechanical 
arrangements,  appliances,  and  artifices,  whereby  the 
business  of  instruction  may  be  facilitated  and  promoted. 
The  following  subjects  deserve  especial  attention : — 

I.     School-buildings  and  Fittings. 

The  best  form  of  a  school-room  is  that  of  an  oblong. 
It  should  be  fitted  up  with  parallel  rows  of  desks,  in  the 
form  of  a  gallery,  for  the  different  classes;  and  a  raised 
platform  should  be  erected  at  one  end,  from  which  the 
master  can  overlook  the  whole  school.  The  desks  should 
be  arranged  into  five  or  six  divisions,  to  suit  the  number 
of  classes  in  the  school.  The  room  should  contain  at 
least  7  square  feet  of  area  for  each  pupil  to  be  accom- 
modated; and  the  space  of  18  inches  should  be  allowed 
for  each  boy  on  the  forms.  The  class  divisions  should 
be  about  9  feet  in  length,  and  may  contain  from  three 
to  five  rows  of  parallel  desks.  Every  good  school  should 
have  a  separate  room  called  a  class-room^  fitted  up  with 
a  gallery  having  parallel  desks,  for  the  purpose  of 
enabling  the  master  to  give  instruction  to  his  pupil- 
teachers,  and  occasional  special  lessons  or  lectures  to  the 


390  PHILOSOPHY   OF   EDUCATION. 

advanced  pupils  of  the  school.  This  class-room  should 
be  fitted  up  with  an  open  fire-place,  a  large  black-board, 
a  lecture  table,  and  a  case  for  holding  experimental  and 
other  kinds  of  school  apparatus. 

The  schoolroom  should  be  well  warmed  and  thoroughly- 
ventilated.  The  most  economical  and  efiicient  means  of 
warming  and  ventilating  schoolrooms,  are  those  stoves 
which  attain  both  of  these  objects  at  the  same  time. 
There  have  been  some  excellent  stoves  of  this  kind  in- 
troduced into  some  of  our  large  workshops,  but  we  are 
not  aware  that  they  have  as  yet  been  sufficiently  em- 
ployed in  our  schools. 

Some  schoolrooms  are  divided  into  three  equal  portions, 
the  first  containing  space  for  the  children  to  stand  in 
semicircular  drafts;  the  second,  seats  with  desks  for 
writing;  and  the  third,  a  gallery  for  simultaneous  in- 
struction. But  it  appears  to  us  that  this  triple  division 
interferes  very  much  with  the  order,  quiet,  and  discipline 
of  the  school.  A  series  of  parallel  desks,  arranged  in 
the  gallery  form,  and  subdivided  for  the  accomodation 
of  the  different  classes,  under  proper  management,  not 
only  answers  all  the  desirable  purposes  of  this  triple  di- 
vision, but  also  secures  the  uniform  and  continuous  action 
of  all  the  classes,  without  any  of  that  noise  and  confusion 
necessarily  attendant  upon  the  changes  of  position,  &c., 
connected  with  the  standing  drafts. 

The  schoolroom  should  be  constructed  so  as  to  deaden 
as  much  as  possible,  the  echo  of  the  teachers'  or  the 
children's  voices;  and  the  school  should  be  in  a  quiet, 
cheerful,  and  healthy  neighborhood.  The  ground 
should  be  thoroughly  drained,  and  complete  water  closets 
should  be  provided  for  the  use  of  tlie  children.    A  play- 


SCHOOL   APPARATUS.  391 

ground  should  be  attached  to  the  schools,  where  the 
childreu  may  amuse  themselves  with  games  and  gymnastic 
exercises,  at  the  times  set  apart  for  that  purpose;  and 
where  also  the  boys  should  be  daily  exercised  at  drill. 

The  best  plans  of  schools  have  been  given  by  Sir 
James  Kay  Shuttleworth,  in  the  Minutes  of  Council  for 
the  years  1839,  1840,  1844,  and  184*7-8.  Professor 
Moseley's  tripartite  plan  is  admirably  adapted  to  the 
higher  class  of  elementary  schools. 

II.  School  Apparatus. 

The  Black -Board  should  be  supported  on  an  easel  in 
front  of  the  class.  It  should  be  sufficiently  large,  with  a 
smooth  black  surface  capable  of  receiving  chalk  marks. 
All  diagrams  and  expositions  should  be  distinctly 
sketched  upon  the  blackboard  with  prepared  chalk.  The 
teacher  should  be  provided  with  a  pointer,  and  a  duster, 
which  should  be  in  a  damp  state  when  used  for  rubbing 
out  the  chalk  marks. 

The  Text-Books,  Maps,  Diagrams,  Models,  and 
Pictorial  Illustrations,  should  be  in  keeping  with  the 
master's  peculiar  system  of  instruction. 

The  School  Library  should  contain  books  suited  to 
the  attainments,  capabilities,  and  future  pursuits  of  the 
pupils  in  the  school. 

The  Experimental  Apparatus  should,  at  first,  be  of 
the  most  simple  and  inexpensive  description.  It  is  better 
that  a  master  should  learn  to  use  a  little  apparatus  with 
smartness  and  precision,  than  to  be  constantly  handling 
a  great  deal  with  awkwardness  and  indecision.  It  is 
important  to  bear  in  mind,  that  reading  alone  will  not 
give  a  man  the  power  of  manipulation.     Let  the  teacher 


392  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

begin  with  the  simplest  possible  apparatus,  and  then  go 
on  progressively  until  he  is  able  to  manipulate  with 
perfect  instruments. 

List  of  apparatus  for  general  use. 

Map  of  the  World,  of  Europe,  of  England,  of  Palestine, 
of  the  British  Colonies,  and  a  raised  physical  map  of 
England. 

A  terrestrial  globe,  blackboards  for  all  the  classes  in 
the  school,  slate-pencils,  black-lead  pencils,  pen-holders, 
pencil-holders,  earthenware  inkwells,  strings  for  slates, 
prepared  chalk,  admission-book,  class  register  books, 
attendance  and  absence  register,  routines  of  lessons, 
visitor's  book,  &c. 

Routines  of  Lessons,  or  Time  Tables. 

Each  class  should  have  a  separate  routine  of  lessons, 
adapted  to  the  attainments  and  capabilities  of  the  pupils 
composing  it.  These  routines  should  be  suspended  before 
their  respective  classes,  and  the  teacher  should  enter  the 
routine  of  his  class  in  the  fly-leaves  left  at  the  beginning 
of  his  class  register.  The  routines  should  be  framed  not 
only  with  regard  to  the  attainments  of  the  respective 
classes,  but  should  also  have  a  due  regard  to  the  harmoni- 
ous operation  of  the  whole  school,  and  the  proper  alter- 
nation of  subjects,  according  to  the  principles  which  we 
have  explained  in  relation  to  school  routines  (see  p.  134). 

Classification. 

Without  classification,  the  collective  system  of  instruc- 
tion would  be  worse  than  useless.  The  first  business  of 
the  schoolmaster,  therefore,  is  to  throw  his  pupils  into 


CLASSIFICATION.  393 

classes,  where  the  boys  in  each  class  shall  have  the  same, 
or  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same,  attainments  and  capa- 
bilities. The  number  of  classes,  in  a  school,  must  de- 
pend upon  its  size,  as  well  as  upon  the  differences  of  age 
and  attainments  of  the  pupils.  A  very  minute  division 
is  neither  desirable  nor  practicable.  It  is  not  at  all  re- 
quisite, to  secure  efficient  instruction,  that  all  the  pupils 
in  a  class  should  have  exactly  the  same  attainments;  for 
a  good  teacher  can  always  adapt  his  instruction  to  suit 
boys  whose  attainments  do  not  differ  widely  from  each 
other.  As  a  general  rule,  a  large  school  may  contain 
about  eight  classes,  and  a  school  of  an  average  size 
about  five.  The  pupils  in  each  class  should  continue 
there  for  every  subject  of  study  until  promoted  to  the 
next  class.  Under  a  proper  system  of  management,  the 
subdivision  of  classes  into  drafts,  for  the  purpose  of  at- 
taining a  more  perfect  classification,  is  rarely  necessary, 
and,  in  my  opinion,  should  only  be  resorted  to  in  special 
cases. 

Basis  of  classification.  The  proper  basis  of  classifi- 
cation, as  we  have  ah-eady  explained  (see  p.  130),  should 
be  the  mental  power  and  capabilities  of  the  pupils.  The 
following  method  of  classification  is  simple,  practicable, 
and  sufficiently  exact  for  all  ordinary  cases: — 

First,  arrange  the  pupils  into  three  great  divisions; 
second,  subdivide  each  division  into  two  or  more  classes. 
Thus,  in  a  school  of  120  boys,  we  should  have,  on  an 
average,  40  buys  in  each  division,  and  20  boys  in  each 
class. 

Tests  or  qualifications  foe  the  three  divisions. 
Reading  and  general  intelligence  may  be  taken  as  the 
best  tests  for  fixing  the  division  to  which  any  child  may 


B94  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

belong.  Reading  words  of  one  or  two  syllables  may  be 
taken  as  the  qualification  for  the  third  or  lowest  division; 
reading  words  of  two  and  three  syllables,  or  reading 
simple  sentences  with  intelligence,  as  the  qualification 
for  the  second  division;  and  reading  words  of  four  or 
any  higher  number  of  syllables,  or  reading  the  higher 
class  books  with  tolerable  intelligence,  as  the  qualifica- 
tion for  the  first  or  highest  division. 

Tests  or  qualifications  for  the  classes.  In  this 
case  arithmetic  forms  the  best  basis  of  classification. 
Here  a  knowledge  of  principles,  not  less  than  mechanical 
dexterity,  should  enter  into  our  estimate  of  qualifications. 

If  the  third  division  contains  two  classes,  the  lower  class 
may  contain  those  children  that  have  not  commenced 
slate  arithmetic,  or  who  have  only  commenced  the  sub- 
ject of  mental  calculation;  the  higher  class  may  contain 
those  children  who  have  commenced  slate  arithmetic,  or 
who  have  made  some  progress  in  mental  arithmetic. 

If  the  second  division  contains  two  classes,  the  lower 
class  may  contain  those  children  that  have  not  com- 
pleted the  four  elementary  rules;  the  higher  class  those 
that  have  commenced  the  subject  of  reduction. 

If  the/r«^  division  contains  two  classes,  the  lower  class 
may  contain  those  boys  who  are  capable  of  working 
questions  in  the  rule  of  three, without  the  use  of  fractions; 
and  the  higher  class  those  that  are  capable  of  under- 
standing fractions  and  arithmetical  problems  generally. 

The  Pupil-Teachers. 

The  pupil-teachers  should  always  be  selected  for  their 
general  intelligence,  good  conduct,  and  aptitude  for 
teaching.    The  number  of  pupil-teachers  must,  of  course. 


SCHOOL   DISCIPLINE.  395 

depend  upon  the  size  of  the  school;  for  a  school  of  120 
boys,  there  should  be  at  least  four  pupil-teachers.  It  is 
also  desirable  that  there  should  be  a  class  of  assistant 
pupil -teachers,  who  may  be  considered  in  a  state  of  pro- 
bation, or  preparation,  for  the  office  of  pupil-teacher. 
These  assistant  pupil-teachers  may  have  a  draft  of  a 
class  given  to  them,  for  teaching  certain  subjects  which 
may  require  a  greater  subdivision  of  labor.  The  master 
should  constantly  bear  in  mind  that  the  organization 
and  efficiency  of  his  school  greatly  depend  upon  the 
training  of  his  pupil-teachers. 

SCHOOL  DISCIPLINE. 

School  discipline  includes  all  those  means  and  appli- 
ijnces  whereby  the  order  and  healthful  action  of  a  school 
are  maintained  and  promoted. 

I.  Order,  &c. 

Under  this  head  may  be  classed,  obedience,  punctu- 
ality, silence,  cleanliness,  politeness,  and  general  good 
conduct.  It  is  quite  unnecessary  to  explain  in  detail 
how  these  matters  of  discipline  should  be  carried  out  in 
a  school.  The  following  general  principles  are  well 
deserving  the  teacher's  notice. 

1.  The  teacher  should  endeavor  to  establish  a  principle  of 
limited  self-government  in  his  school.  This  will  occasionally 
relieve  him  of  some  of  his  most  onerous  duties;  but 
even  this  is  the  least  important  end  which  will  be 
gained  by  such  a  plan.  The  great  end  to  be  attained 
by  it,  is  to  interest  the  pupils  in  the  management,  and 
proper  discipline  of  the  school, — to  identify  them,  as  it 
were,  with  the  good  name  of  the  school,  to  have  it  said 


396  PHILOSOPHY   OP   EDUCATION. 

that  the  order  of  the  school  is  mainly  due  to  their  own 
good  sense  and  self-government. 

One  of  the  most  obvious  plans  for  carrying  out  this 
plan,  is  for  the  teacher  to  delegate  (under  supervision) 
his  authority,  in  relation  to  order,  <fcc.,  to  his  pupil- 
teachers.  But  the  principle  should  not  stop  here:  he 
should  endeavor  to  enlist  the  co-operation  of  all  the  ad- 
vanced pupils,  and  to  govern  the  whole  school  by  its 
public  opinion.  The  following  story  given  by  Jacob 
Abbott,  about  a  hat  peg,  affords  us  a  graphic  illustration 
of  the  principle  which  we  should  wish  to  see  carried 
out.  We  do  not  suppose  that  a  hat  peg  would  ever  be 
the  occasion  of  a  dispute,  in  any  English  school,  but  this 
does  not  effect  the  principle,  intended  to  be  illustrated. 

The  preceptor  of  an  academy  was  sitting  at  his  desk, 
at  the  close  of  the  school,  while  the  pupils  were  putting 
up  their  books  and  leaving  the  room,  when  a  boy  came 
in  with  angry  looks,  and,  with  his  hat  in  his  hand 
bruised  and  dusty,  advanced  to  the  master's  desk,  and 
complained  that  one  of  his  companions  had  thrown  down 
his  hat  upon  the  floor,  and  had  almost  spoilt  it. 

The  teacher  looked  calmly  at  the  mischief,  and  then 
asked  how  it  happened. 

"I  don't  know,  sir;  I  hung  it  upon  my  nail,  and  he 
pulled  it  down." 

"  I  wish  you  would  ask  him  to  come  here,"  said  the 
teacher;  "ask  him  pleasantly." 

The  accused  soon  came  in,  and  the  two  boys  stood 
together  before  the  master. 

*'  There  seems  to  be  some  difficulty  between  you  two 
boys  about  a  nail  to  hang  your  hat  upon.  I  suppose 
each  of  you  think  it  is  your  own  nail." 


SCHOOL   DISCIPLINE.  397 

"  Yes,  sir,"  said  both  the  boys. 

"  It  will  be  more  convenient  for  me  to  talk  with  you 
about  it  to-morrow,  than  to-night,  if  you  are  willing  to 
wait.  Besides,  we  can  examine  it  more  calmly  then. 
But  if  we  put  it  off  till  then,  you  must  not  talk  about  it 
in  the  meantime,  blaming  one  another,  and  keeping  up 
the  irritation  that  you  feel.  Are  you  both  willing  to 
leave  it  just  where  it  is,  till  to-morrow,  and  try  to  forget 
all  about  it  till  then  ?  I  expect  I  shall  find  you  both  to 
blame." 

The  boys  reluctantly  consented.  The  next  day  the 
master  heard  the  case  and  settled  it,  so  far  as  it  related 
to  the  boys.  It  was  easily  settled  in  the  morning,  for 
they  had  had  time  to  get  calm,  and  were,  after  sleeping 
away  their  anger,  rather  ashamed  of  the  whole  affair, 
and  very  desirous  to  have  it  forgotten. 

That  day,  when  the  hour  for  transaction  of  business 
came,  the  teacher  stated  to  the  school  that  it  was  neces- 
sary to  take  some  measures  to  provide  each  boy  with  a 
nail  for  his  hat.  In  order  to  show  that  it  was  necessary, 
he  related  the  circumstances  of  the  quarrel  which  had 
occurred  the  day  before.  He  did  this,  not  with  such  an 
air  and  manner  as  to  convey  the  impression  that  his 
object  was  to  find  fault  with  the  boys,  or  to  expose  their 
misconduct,  but  to  show  the  necessity  of  doing  some- 
thing to  remedy  the  evil  which  had  been  the  cause  of 
so  unpleasant  an  occurrence.  Still,  though  he  said 
nothing  in  the  way  of  reproach  or  reprehension,  and  did 
not  name  the  boys,  but  merely  gave  a  cool  and  impartial 
narrative  of  the  facts, — the  effect,  very  evidently,  was  to 
bring  such  quarrels  into  discredit.  A  calm  review  of 
misconduct,  after  the  excitement  has  gone  by,  will  do 


398  PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION. 

more  to  bring  it  into  disgrace,  than  the  most  violent  in- 
vectives and  reproaches,  directed  against  individuals 
guilty  of  it. 

"Now,  boys,"  continued  the  master,  "  will  you  assist 
me  in  making  arrangements  to  prevent  the  recurrence 
of  all  temptations  of  this  kind  hereafter?  It  is  plain  that 
every  boy  ought  to  have  a  nail  appropriated  expressly 
to  his  use.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  ascertain 
whether  there  are  enough  for  all.  I  should  like,  there- 
fore, to  have  two  committees  appointed, — one  to  count 
and  report  the  number  of  nails  in  the  entry,  and  also 
how  much  room  there  is  for  more.  The  other  is  to  as- 
certain the  number  of  scholars  in  school.  They  can 
count  all  who  are  here,  and,  by  observing  the  vacant 
desks,  they  can  ascertain  the  number  absent.  When 
this  investigation  is  made,  I  will  tell  you  what  to  do 
next." 

The  boys  seemed  pleased  with  the  plan,  and  the  com- 
mittees were  appointed,  two  members  on  each.  The 
master  took  care  to  give  the  quarrellers  some  share  in 
the  work,  apparently  forgetting  from  this  time  the  un- 
pleasant occurrence  which  had  brought  up  the  subject. 

When  the  boys  came  to  tell  him  their  results,  he 
asked  them  to  make  a  little  memorandum,  in  writing, 
as  he  might  forget  before  the  time  came  for  reading 
them.  They  brought  him  presently  a  rough  scrap  of 
paper,  with  the  figures  marked  upon  it.  He  told  them 
he  should  forget  which  was  the  number  of  the  nails,  and 
which  the  number  of  the  scholars  unless  they  wrote  it 
down. 

"  It  is  the  custom  among  men,"  said  he,  "  to  make  out 
their  report,  in  such  a  case,  fully  so  that  it  would  explain 


SCHOOL    DISCIPLINE.  399« 

itself;  and  I  should  like  you  if  you  are  willing,  to  make 
out  yours  a  little  more  distinctly." 

Accordingly,  after  a  little  additional  explanation,  the. 
boys  made  another  attempt,  and  presently  returned,^ 
with  something  like  the  following: 

"  The  committee  for  counting  the  nails  report  as  follows: 
^' Number  0/ nails         -         -         35, 
''Room  for  -         -         -         15." 

The  other  report  was  very  similar,  though  somewhat, 
rudely  written  and  expressed,  and  both  were  satisfactory 
to  the  preceptor,  as  he  plainly  showed  by  his  manner  in 
which  he  received  them. 

I  need  not  finish  the  description  of  this  case,  by  nar- 
rating, particularly,  the  reading  of  the  reports,  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  committee  to  assign  the  nails,  and  to 
paste  up  the  names  of  the  scholars,  one  to  each.  The- 
work,  in  such  a  case,  might  be  done  in  recesses,  and  out 
of  school  hours,  and  though,  at  first,  the  teacher  will 
find  that  it  is  as  much  trouble  to  accomplish  business  in 
this  way  as  it  would  be  to  attend  to  it  directly  himself, 
yet  after  a  very  little  experience,  he  will  find  that  his 
pupils  will  acquire  dexterity  and  readiness,  and  will  be 
able  to  render  him  very  material  assistance  in  the  accom-^^ 
plishment  of  his  plans. 

2.  As  far  as  possible,  the  discipline  of  the  school  should  he 
maintained  without  the  aid  of  direct  punishment;  and  its  health-, 
ful  tone  and  action  should  he  rarely  promoted  by  the  application 
of  such  powerful  stimulants  as  rewards  or  flattering  commenda- 
tions. 

We  have  already  explained  pretty  fully  our  views  reU 
ative  to  the  subject  of  rewards  and  punishments  (see 
p.  141,  &c.).  We  have  therefore  only  further  to  add  that, 
when  the  teacher  really  finds  it  necessary  that  he  should 


400  PHILOSOPHY    OF    EDUCATION. 

have  recourse  to  punishments,  in  order  to  maintain  the 
discipline  of  his  school,  he  should  act  upon  some  grad 
uated  system  of  secondary  punishments,  before  he 
inflicts  the  severest  of  them.  Sometimes  a  look,  from 
the  teacher,  will  be  suflicient  to  make  a  boy  sensible  of 
his  fault;  a  reproof  may  supersede  the  necessity  of  any 
further  punishment;  the  withdrawal  of  some  privilege 
may  do  more  in  correcting  a  boy  of  his  error,  than  the 
use  of  the  rod;  and  the  moderate  infliction  of  some  cor- 
poral punishment  may  be  more  eflicacious  in  counteract- 
ing crime,  than  a  higher  degree  of  degrading  torture. 

Whenever  rewards  are  bestowed  on  boys  of  a  superior 
merit  and  character,  they  should  be  given  as  mementoes 
of  good  conduct,  and  not  as  possessing  any  value  apart 
from  the  object  for  which  they  are  given. 

3.  Brill  exercises  are  highly  calculated  to  promote  the  order 
and  healthful  action  of  a  school. 

Besides  the  usual  drill  exercises  in  the  play-ground,  the 
teacher  should  frequently  relieve  the  monotony  of  his 
lessons,  by  requiring  his  pupils,  time  after  time,  to  go 
through  certain  simple  gymnastic  movements,  such  as, 
"arms  folded,"  "hands  on  desks,"  "stand,"  "sit,"  "hands 
up,"  "down,"  **shoulders  up,"  "right  hand  up,"  "left 
up,"  "turn,"  "front,"  &c. 

J^efore  a  teacher  commences  a  lesson,  he  should  drill 
the  children  into  good  order;  amongst  other  things  they 
should  be  commanded  to  sit  upright,  or  to  sit  exactly  in 
front  of  their  desks,  or  to  place  their  feet  in  a  proper 
position,  or  to  sit  at  proper  distances  from  each  other, 
or  to  place  their  books  or  slates  properly — and  so  on. 

They  should  be  marched  in  and  out  of  their  classes  in 
regular  military  order.  Every  gymnastic  movement 
should  be  performed  simultaneously,  and  with  smartness 
and  precision.  All  this  tends  very  much  to  foater  habits 
of  order  and  prompt  obedience. 


/'^^   OF  THT? 


ADVERTISEMENTS. 


^^^-^i'J^'^-? 


THE  SCHOOL  Bl-LLETIN  PUBLICATIONS.- 


The  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 

This  largest  and  handsomest  of  our  publications  is  an  octavo  volume  of 
662  pages,  price  $3.75.  IIow  indispensable  it  is  to  the  teacher  and  to  the 
school  library  may  be  judged  from  the  following  testimonials. 

"  It  is  admirable  in  every  way.  The  book  is  w-orthy  of  a  lower  shelf  in 
everj' teacher's  VCavditY .—Educational  JVeics,  June  8,  1889. 

"This  handsomely  printed  book  is  worth  adding  to  the  pedagogical 
shelf  of  any  reference  library."— 77«e  C?itic,  Marcli  2:1,  1889. 

"  An  elegant  volume,  which  will  find  a  place  in  the  library  of  every 
teacher.  The  bibliography  at  the  end  of  tlie  book  is  the  best  educational 
check-list  in  the  country."— i?.  Ileber  Ilolbi'ook,  in  Normal  Exponent,  May,  '89. 

"  It  is  the  most  ambitious  work  of  the  kind  yet  published  in  English, 
and  is,  therefore,  a  verv  valuable  volume  for  the  teacher's  library.  More- 
over, its  value  is  increased  greatly  by  the  addition  of  a  very  extensive  Bibli- 
ography of  Pedagogy,  both  English  and  foreign.  "—Po;;'r  Educator,  :Mch.  '89. 

"  This  work  occupies  a  distinct  and  peculiar  field,  and  will  be  of  contin- 
ual value  to  the  educator.  The  special  aim  of  the  editor,  Mr.  A,  Fletcher, 
has  been  to  give  a  clear  but  concise  account  of  facts  and  questions  belong- 
ing to  educational  topics.  Here  are  a  few  titles  which  will  give  some  idea 
of  the  scope  of  the  work :  Pestalozzi,  Attendance,  Analysis  of  Sentences, 
Chemistry,  Technical  Education,  Precocity,  Pedagogy,  Hamiltonian  Method, 
Hegel,  Universal  Language,  Utilitarianism,  University,  Kindergarten.  Un- 
der these,  and  many  scores  of  other  topics,  there  is  given  a  mass  of  carefully 
combined  information,  much  of  which  could  not  bo  found  elsewhere."— 
Christian  Union,  Feb.  22,  1889. 

^>*  "  A  handbook  of  ready  reference  on  educational  subjects  of  a  high  plane 
of  scholarship  has  long  been  a  desideratum  in  this  country,  and  this  work  in 
a  large  measure  supplies  this  want.  It  is  a  handbook  of  reference  on  all  sub- 
jects of  education— its  history,  theory,  and  practice.  The  list  of  contributors 
to  the  work  embraces  the  leading  educational  writers  of  England,  including 
;such  names  as  Oscar  Browning,  J.  S.  C'urwen,  Sir  Philip  Magnus,  Arthur 
Sidgwick,  and  James  Sully.  These  men  are  writers  of  the  broadest  scholar- 
iship,  capable  of  thinking  deeply  on  educational  subjects,  and  what  they 
have  to  say  is  entitled  to  the  highest  confidence  of  the  educational  world. 
^The  object  dilgently  kept  in  view  by  the  writei-s  of  this  work  has  been  to 
make  it  useful  to  all  who  take  an  interest  in  educational  questions,  and 
'especially  to  those  engaged  in  teaching.  With  this  purpose  in  view  the  ob- 
'  ject  has  been  to  present  a  practical  view  of  educational  facts  and  questions 
'discussed.  An  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  great  variety  of  subjects  has 
liiot  been  aimed  at,  the  end  sought  being  to  bring  their  pedagogic  features 
Into  clear  outline.  Not  the  least  useful  part  of  the  work  is  a  'Select  and 
Systematic  Bililiography  of  Pedagogy,'  occupying  some  forty  pages.  The 
Iwork  makes  a  large  octavo  volume  of  5C3  pages.  The  mechanical  execu- 
tion is  unusually  satisfactory.  "—Journal  o/  Pedagogy,  Juno,  1889. 

C.  W.  BAKDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS.- 


The  Five  Great  English  Books. 

The  recognition  of  Teaching  as  a  Science  was  much  earlier  in  England 
than  in  this  country,  and  the  five  books  which  are  there  recognized  as  stan- 
dards, have  probably  nb  equals  in  soundness  and  scope.  Hence  they  are 
usually  the  first  books  adopted  by  Reading  Circles,  and  are  indispensable  to 
the  library  of  an  intelligent  teacher.    These  are: 

1.  Essmjs  on  Educational  Refonmrs.  By  Robert  Henrt  Quick.  Cloth, 
16mo,  pp.  330.    Price  $1.50. 

This  is  altogether  the  best  History  of  Education.  "  With  the  suggestion 
that  stticly  should  be  made  interesting,''''  writes  Principal  Morgan,  of  the  Rhode 
Island  State  Normal  School,  "  we  most  heartily  agree.  How  this  may  be 
done,  the  attentive  reader  will  be  helped  in  learning  by  the  study  of  this 
admirable  book." 

2.  The  First  Three  Years  of  ChildJiood.  By  B.  Perez.  With  an  intro- 
duction by  Prof.  JA3IES  Sully.    Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  294.    Price  $1.50. 

This  is  incomparably  the  best  psychology  for  primary  teachers,  and 
forms  the  proper  Basis  for  pedagpg'ical  knowledge.  The  Journal  of  Pedagogy 
says  (April,  1889):  "  Some  of  the  greatest  questions  relating  to  primary  edu- 
cation can  only  be  solved  by  an  accurate  observation  and  correct  interpre- 
tation of  the  infant  mind,  and  as  the  author  of  this  volume  combines  the 
proper  qualifications  for  the  work  with  ample  opportunity,  his  observations 
and  deductions  are  entitled  to  the  highest  confidence." 

3.  Lectures  on  the  Science  and  Art  of  Education.  By  Joseph  Patne. 
Cloth,  ICmo,  pp.  384.    Pi-ice,  $1-00. 

The  student  is  now  ready  t^  take  up  the  Science  of  Education,  which  is 
nowhere  else  so  brilliantly  and  effectively  presented.  The  lectures  are  sin- 
gularly fascinating,  and  the  full  analysis  and  indexes  in  this  edition  make  it 
easy  to  collate  and  compare  all  that  the  authoi*  has  uttered  upon  any  topic 
suggested. 

U.  The  Philosophy  of  Education,  or  the  Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching. 
By  Thomas  Tate.    Cloth,  16mo,  pp.  440.    Price  $1.50. 

This  gives  the  application  of  the  Science  to  the  Art  of  Teaching,  and  is 
without  a  rival  in  its  clear  presentation  and  abundant  illustrations.  The 
author  is  not  content  with  giving  directions.  He  shows  by  specimens  of 
class-work  just  what  may  be  done  and  should  be  done. 

5.  Introductory  Text-Book  to  ScJiool  Education,  Method  and  Sc/iool  Man- 
agement.    By  John  Gill.    Cloth,  16mo,  pp.  270.    Piice  $1.00. 

This  supplements  the  work  of  all  the  vest  by  practical  directions  as  to 
School  Management.  Of  the  five  this  has  had  a  sale  equal  to  that  of  all  the 
rest  combined.  The  teacher's  greatest  difficulty,  his  surest  discomfiture  if 
he  fails,  is  in  the  discipline  and  management  of  his  school.  That  this  man- 
ual has  proved  of  inestimable  help  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  present 
English  edition  is  the  44th  thousand  printed. 

C.  W.  BAKDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS. 


Books  for  Young  Teachers. 

1.  Common  School  Law  for  Commxm  School  Teaches.  A  digest  of  the 
provisions  of  statute  and  common  law  as  to  the  relations  of  the  Teacher  to 
the  IMipil,  t)ie  Parent,  and  the  District.  With  500  references  to  legal  decis- 
ions in  '-'S  different  States.  14th  edition,  wholly  re-^vritten,  with  references 
to  tlie  Code  of  1888.    By  C.  W.  Bakdeen.    16mo,  cloth,  pp.  120.    Price  75  cts. 

The  reason  why  the  teacher  should  make  this  his  first  purchase  is  that 
without  a  knowledge  of  his  duties  and  his  rights  under  the  law  he  may  fail 
either  in  secui-ing  a  school,  in  managing  it,  or  in  drawing  the  pay  for  his  ser- 
vices. The  statute  provisions  are  remarkably  simple  and  uniform.  The  de- 
cisions of  the  Courts,  except  upon  two  points,  here  fully  discussed,  follow 
certain  defined  precedents.  An  hour  to  each  of  the  eleven  chapters  of  this 
little  book  will  make  the  teacher  master  of  any  legal  difficulties  that  may 
arise,  while  ignorance  of  it  puts  him  at  the  mercy  of  a  rebellious  pupil,  an 
exacting  parent,  or  a  dishonest  trustee. 

2.  Hand-Bookfor  Young  Teachers.  By  H.  B.  Buckham,  late  principal  of 
the  State  Normal  School  at  Buffalo.    Cloth,  IGmo,  pp.  152.    Price  75  cts. 

It  anticipates  all  the  difficulties  likely  to  be  encountered,  and  gives  the 
beginner  the  counsel  of  an  older  friend. 

3.  Tlie  Scliool  Room  Guide,  embodying  the  instruction  given  by  the  author 
at  Teachers' Institutes  in  New  York  and  other  States,  and  especially  in- 
tended to  assist  Pu]:)lic  School  Teachers  in  the  Pi-actical  Work  of  the  School- 
Room.  By  E.  V.  DeGuaff.  Thirteenth  edition,  with  many  additions  and 
corrections.    16mo,  cloth,  pp.  398.    Pi-ice  gl.50. 

As  distinguished  from  others  of  the  modern  standards,  this  is  a  book  of 
Methods  instead  of  theories.  It  tells  the  teacher  just  what  to  do  and  how  to 
do  it ;  and  it  has  proved  more  practically  helpful  in  the  school-room  than 
aaiy  other  book  ever  issued.  ^ 

/;.  A  Quiz-Book  on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching.  By  A.  P. 
SouTnwicK,  author  of  the  "Dime  Question  Books."  12mo,  pp.  220.  Price  $1.00. 

This  is  one  of  the  six  books  recommended  by  the  State  Department  for 
study  in  preparatit^n  for  State  Certificates.  The  otliers  are  Iloose's  Methods 
{fl.OO),  Hughes's  Mistakes  (50  cts.).  Fitch's  Lectures  (Sl.OO),  Paere's  Theory  and 
Pi^actice  ($1.25),  and  Swett's  Metliods  ($1.25).  We  will  send  the  six  post-paid 
for  $5.00. 

*^  5.    Mistakes  in  Teaching.    By  James  L.  Hughes.    American  edition,  with 
contents  and  index.    Cloth,  lOmo,  pp.  135.    Price  50  cts. 

More  than  15,000  have  been  used  in  the  county  institutes  of  Iowa,  and 
elsewlu're  superintendents  often  choose  this  book  for  their  less  thoughtful 
teachers,  assured  tliat  its  pungent  style  and  chatty  treatment  will  arrest 
attention  and  produce  good  results, 

6  How  to  Secure  and  Retain  Attention.  By  James  L.  Hughes.  16mo, 
cloth,  pp.  97.    Price  50  cts. 

This  touches  attractively  and  helpfully  upon  the  first  serious  difficulty 
the  teacher  encounters.    No  young  teacher  should  neglect  these  hints. 

7.  Primary  Helps.  A  Kindergarten  Manual  for  Public  School  Teachei-s. 
By  W.  N.  IIailmann.  8vo,  boards,  pp.  58,  with  15  full-page  plates.  l*ric;e  75  cts. 

In  these  days,  no  primary  teacher  can  afford  to  be  ignorant  of  "  The  New 
Educal  ion,"  and  this  is  jxThaps  the  only  volume  that  makes  kindergarten 
principles  practically  available  in  public  schools. 

S.    Diiv£  QueMion  Book,  No.  4,  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaddng.    Ifiino, 
paper,  pp.  40.    I*rico  10  eta.    By  A.  P.  Soutuwick. 
A  capital  preparation  for  examination. 
€.  AV.  IJAROEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


•THE  SCHOOL  BVLLETIIT  PUBLICATIONS. 


The  School  Room  Classics. 

Under  the  above  title  we  have  published  a  series  of  Monof^raphs  upon 
Education,  as  follows,  all  16mo,  in  paper,  at  15  cts.  each, 

1.  Unconscious  Tuition.    By  Bishop  Huntington.    Pp.  45. 

"There  is  probably  nothing  finer  in  the  whole  range  of  educational  lit- 
erature."—C/iio  Educational  Monthly. 

"It  cannot  be  read  without  a  wholesome  self- weighing,  and  a  yearning 
which  develops  true  character."— TVi^  Schoolmaster,  Chicago. 

2.  The  Art  of  Questioning.    By  J,  G.  Fitch.    Pp.  36. 

"Mr.  Fitch  is  happily  inside  his  subject,  and  as  clear  as  a  helV—C/iris- 
Han  Register. 

3.  The  Philosoj)hy  of  Sclwol  Discipline.    By  John  Kennedy.    Pp.  23. 
"Clear  and  logical,  and  goes  dovra  to  the  verj'  foundation."— C^ifica 

Herald. 

L     The  Art  of  Secunng  Attention.    By  J.  G.  Fitch.    Pp.  43. 

"Perhaps  I  overestimate  Fitch's  works,  but  I  fail  to  find  in  the  state- 
ment of  any  other  educational  writer  a  juster  comprehension  of  the  needs 
and  difficulties  of  both  teacher  and  pupil,  or  mo^e  common  sense  put  into 
neater,  clearer  style."— TAe  Student,  Philadelphia. 

5.  Learning  and  Health.    By  B.  W.  Richardson.    Pp.  39. 

"  A  timely  topic  ably  treated."— iV.  E.  Journal  of  Education. 

"  Certainly  worth  many  times  its  weight  in  gol<\.''''— Eclectic  Teacher. 

6.  The  New  Education.    By  J.  M.  W.  Meikle.john.    Pp.  35. 

"  Absolutely  the  best  summary  we  have  seen  of  the  doctrines  of  Froebel 
in  their  present  development.  "—xV.  Y.  Scliool  Journal. 

I.  A  Small  Tractate  of  Education.    By  John  Miltox.    Pp.  26. 

"  Far  more  important  in  the  literature  of  the  subject  than  the  treatise 
of  Locke.''^— Encyclopaedia  Brittanica. 

8.  The  School  WorTc-SJwp.  By  Baroness  von  Marenholz-Buelow.  trans- 
lated by  Miss  Blow.    Pp.  27. 

"In  this  treatise  the  kindergarten  view  of  Industrial  Education  receives 
its  best  exemplification."— X  E.  Journal  of  Education. 

9.  Sex  in  Mind  and  in  Education.    By  Henry  Maudslet.    Pp.  42. 
"A  masterly  treatment  of  a  delicate  subject." — N.  E.  Journal  of  Edu- 
cation. 

10.  Education  as  Viewed  by  Thinkers.    Pp.  47. 

This  contains  95  classified  quotations  from  leading  authorities  of  every 
time  and  country,  and  will  be  of  use  to  every  writer  and  speaker. 

II.  Hoio  to  Teach  Natural  Science  in  Public  Schools.  By  Wm.  T.  Harris. 
Pp.  40. 

Since  this  was  first  published  in  1871  for  the  schools  of  St.  Louis,  it  has 
been  regarded  as  the  standard  authority  upon  the  subject,  and  this  edition, 
revised  by  the  author,  was  prepared  by  the  request  of  the  Committee  on 
Physics-Teaching  in  1887  of  the  National  Association. 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLTCATIOXS. 

Industrial  Education. 

1.  The  Educational  Value  of  Manual  Training.  By  Wm.  T.  Harris, 
LL.D.,  Commissioner  of  Education.    Paper,  8vo.  pp.  14.    Price  15  cts. 

S.  Art  Education  tlie  True  Industrial  Education.  By  Wm.  T.  Harris, 
LL.D.,  Commissioner  of  Education.    Paper,  8vo,  pp.  9.    Price  15  cts. 

These  two  papers  by  the  prof oundest  educational  thinker  of  our  time 
present  powerfully  the  arguments  against  industrial  education  as  it  is  often 
advocated  and  introduced.  A  careful  line  is  drawn  between  what  is  and 
what  is  not  the  legitimate  place  of  hand-training  in  our  public  schools.  No 
advocate  of  either  side  of  this  question  can  afford  to  be  ignorant  of  these 
two  papers. 

3.  Aspects  of  Industi'ial  Education.  By  H.  H.  Straight.  Paper,  ICmo, 
pp.  12.    Price  15  cts. 

This  is  an  argument  upon  the  other  side,  by  one  of  the  strongest  advo- 
cates of  manual  training,  till  his  death  associated  with  Col.  Parker  at  Oak 
Park,  111. 

k.  The  School  Work-Shop.  By  the  Baroness  Von  Marenholz-Buelow, 
translated  by  Miss  Susan  E.  Blow.    Paper,  16mo,  pp.  27.    Price  15  cts. 

The  Baroness  Von  Marenholz-Buelow  is  recognized  as  the  foremost  ad- 
vocate of  the  doctrines  of  Froebel,  to  which  she  has  indeed  given  fuller  and 
more  practical  expression  than  he  was  able  to  himself.  From  her  point  of 
view  the  work-shop  in  the  school-room  is  the  legitimate  and  necessary  de- 
velopment of  his  theory  of  education.  But  while  she  recognizes  that  manual 
labor  must  be  introduced  not  as  an  end  but  as  a  means  to  general  culture 
and  development,  she  argues  that  laborers  can  demand  of  society  no  higher 
right  than  an  education  to  labor.  The  argument  from  this  point  of  view  has 
never  been  more  strongly  presented,  and  those  who  would  form  sound  ideas 
that  they  are  able  to  defend  should  be  familiar  with  this  little  book. 

5.  Industrial  Instruction  a  Fedagogic  and  Social  Necessity.  Together  with 
a  Critique  on  Objections  Advanced.  By  Robert  Seidel.  Translated  by 
Miss  Margaret  K.  Smith.    Cloth,  ICmo,  pp.  160.    Price  80  cts. 

This  is  a  more  elaborate,  extended,  and  comprehensive  argument,  and  is 
indeed  by  far  the  strongest  and  broadest  defence  of  manual  training  that 
has  appeared. 

6.  The  Manual  Training  School,  comprishig  a  full-statement  of  its  Aims, 
Methods,  and  Results,  with  figured  Drawings  of  Shop  Exercises  in  Woods 
and  Metals.    Cloth,  8vo,  pp.  .360.    Price  $2.00. 

This  volume  presents  the  course  of  instruction  given  in  the  school  in  St. 
Louis  of  which  the  author  has  been  so  long  the  principal.  It  is  careful  and 
minute  in  detail,  abundantly  illustrated,  and  in  every  way  the  most  com- 
plete practical  manual  that  has  appeared. 

C.  W.  BAKDKEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS. 


The  Word  Method  in  Number. 


These  cards  need  only  to  be  seen  in 
at  once,  as  the  principle  is  already  fa- 
numbers  are  all  printed  in  type  like 
portance  of  using  sa^pt  figures  for  this  ^ 
mated. 

The  same  fiprures  are  reversed 


,,  order  to  be  intro-  ^  duced 
miliar  and  accept-^^  ed.  The 
that  here  shown. ^^  The  im- 
' exercise  cannot  be  ^ overesti- 


upon  the  opposite^ 
card  he  knows  the , 


so  that  as  the  teacher  lifts  the 
ures  on  the  other  side, 

As  soon  as  the  pupils  com-  ^W'  m  e  n  c  e  reading, 
lessons  in  number,  and  the  ^r^  first  lesson  should 
gle  figures.    In  this  so  much  ^^  practice  should 
pil  when  adding  will  learn  ^^to  look  upon  the 
"  13,"  not  as  "  4  and  9  are  ^  13,"  just 
as  we  learn  to  look  up 
on  cat  as  an  entire  word  ^^ 
—  not    as   c-a-ty  cat.  ^^^  Equal 

subtraction,  until  combinations  of  two  fig- 
nations  of  letters  in  words. 

At  first  add  familiar  objects,  passing 
bers;  write  the  simplest  combinations  on 
the  cards,  and  write  the  answer  in  the 
times  that  the  method  of  writing  num- 
addition  may  be  learned.    Then  use 
cards  for  drill,  adding  new  cards 
from  time  to  time,  as  new  combina- 
veloped.     Do  not  introduce  next* 

At  every  exercise,  review  all 
answ^ers  should  be  given  imme- 
cards.    Use  the  cards  selected 
laneously,  so  that  no  answer 
ing.    Pursue  the  same  plan 
In  subtraction  when  the 
readily  add  ten  to  the  min- 
the  usual  manner. 

Success  will  be  cer- 
duced  only  after  those  al- 
learned.    Reviews  should 

From  scores  of  testi- 
we  select  the  following: 


side  of  the  card 
'sum  of  the  fig- 


they  should  have 
be  in  combining  sin- 
be  given  that  the  pu- 
combi nation  |  as  itself 


readiness  should  follow  in 
ures  are  as  familiar  as  combi- 

afterwards  to  abstract   num- 

the  blackboard,  as  they  are  on 

proper  place.    Repeat  this  a  few 

bers  for 

the 


tions  are  de- 
cards  too  rapidly. 
cards  previously 
a  t  e  1  y  on  present- 
tor  a  particular  exercise^ 
can  be  guessed  from  the 
in  subtraction  and  mulipli- . 


smaller  number  is  above, 
Liend,  and  give  the  re- 

ftain  if  new  combina- 
^voady  presented 
,  be  constant. 


pupils  will 
'  mainder    i  n 

,  ''tions  are  intro- 
are   thoroughly 


monials     received 


"  Will  you  send  me  one-half  dozen  cases  of 
Cards?     I  have  many  Inquiries  for  them, 
have  been  lavish  in  their  praise  of  our  work 
these  sets  are  given  away  to  try  tlie  card 
teen  packages  of  the  cards  I  have  order 
our  class  drills  more,  send  Prof.  San 
him  more  than  he  advertises.  "—5.  G 
Fulton,  N.  y..  May  2, 1889.    "  Dunn 
Normal  we  used  Sanford's  Number 
primary  and  intermediate  depart 
lent  for  quick  work.i 
Please  sendme  three  sets' 
for  our  primary  and  prepara- 
has  once  used  them  cannot 
Ph.D.,  headmaster  Rutgers 
have  freqiiently  advised^ 
because  I  know  from  my 


Sanford's    Number 

Some  of    our   visitors 

with  the  cards.    Two  of 

work.     This  makes  four- 

ed.    After  a  few  days,when 

ford  down  and  we  will  show 

Clapp,  principal  Union  School, 

several  years  at  the  Potsdam 

Cards  with  great  success  in  our 

ments.     We  found  them   excel- 


tory  departments  here.  A  teacher  who 

'afiford  to  be  without  them.  "—S./f.  Cook, 

,  ''College  grammar  school,  Jan.  31, 1890.    "I 

'teachers  to  buy  Sanford's  Number  Cards, 

.  ownexperience  that  they  are  very  valuable 

in' aiding  the  teacher  to 'fix  in  the  pupils'  memory  the  results  of  the  element- 
ary processes  with  numbers.  "—Tyw.  J.  Milne,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,  president  New 
York  State  Teachers'  College,  Feb.  5, 1890. 

-  Sent  post-paid  in  neat  box,  with  directions,  for  50  cts. 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y, 


■THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS.- 


Specialties  in  Aritlimetic. 

1.  Intermediate  Ptvblems  in  Arithtnetic  for  Junior  Cte*se*  ;  containing 
more  tlian  4000  problems  in  Inactions,  Reduction,  and  Decimals.  By  Emjla. 
A.  Welch.    Cloth,  IGmo,  pp.  172.    Price  75  cts.    Key  to  Part  II,  pp.  30,  50  cts. 

In  Syracuse  and  many  other  large  schools,  this  takes  the  place  of  the 
small  arithmetics  in  common  use,  forming  with  any  larger  or  "  practical " 
arithmetic  a  complete  two-book  series.  The  results  obtained  are  in  every 
instance  far  above  those  reached  by  the  ordinary  text-book.  For  city  and 
gi*aded  schools  no  other  collection  of  problems  will  compare  with  these  in 
practical  value  and  satisfactory  results. 

S.  A  Woi'k  in  Niimi)erfor  Junior  Classes  in  Graded  Schools.  By  IMabtha  ■ 
Roe.    Cloth,  16mo,  pp.  IIG.    Price  50  cts. 

This  is  similar  to  the  above,  and  was  prepared  expressly  for  the  Cort- 
land State  I^ormal  School. 

3.  The  CO  Possible  Problems  in  Pe7xentage,  embracing  a  full  and  exhaust- 
ive discussion  of  the  Theory  of  General  Percentage,  with  100  illustrative  ex- 
amples.   By  ^/.  A.  Uradford.    Manilla,  IGmo,  pp.  34.    Price  25  cts. 

k.  Latitude  and  Longitnde,  and  Longitude  and  I'ime.  Embracing  a  com-  ■ 
prehensivo  discussion,  with  over  100  illustrative  questions  and  examples. 
By  J.  A.  Bassett.    Manilla,  IGmo,  pp.  42.    IMce  25  cts. 

5.  Metric  Tables  and  Problems:  a  comprehensive  drill  in  the  Metric 
System,  with  175  Problems  and  Answers.  By  Oscar  Granoer.  Manilla^  16 
mo,  pp.  23.    25  cts. 

G.  The  International  Date-Line,  or  Where  does  the  Bay  Begin  f  By 
Henry  Collins.    Paper,  IGmo,  pp.  15.    Price  15  cts. 

7.  A  Manual  of  Mensuration,  for  use  in  Common  Schools  and  Acade- 
mies.   By  H.  U.  HuTTON.    Boards,  IGmo,  pp.  150.    I*rice  50  cts. 

These  five  books  treat  exhaustively  and  with  abundant  illustration  those 
features  of  arithmetic  that  are  so  often  the  occasion  of  difficulty.  It  is 
characteristic  of  good  teaching  to  make  the  weak  places  strong,  and  these 
books  will  make  pupils  surest  just  where  the  average  pupil  is  most  uncertain. 

8.  Algebra  for  Beginners.  By  O.  S.  Michael.  Cloth,  16mo,  pp.  120. 
Price,  75  cts. 

A  renmrkably  simple  presentation  of  the  subject,  that  may  be  used  with 
profit  in  every  beginning  class. 

9.  Number  Lessons,  somewhat  after  the,  Gnib6  Method,  giving  on  one 
side  the  combinations  of  the  digits,  and  on  the  other  an  unlimited  series  of 
drill-exercises.    Heavy  card-board,  10x11  inches.    Price  10  cts. 

10.  Age-Cards,  containing  9  columns  of  figures,  to  determine  a  person's 
age  by  adding  the  top  numbei-s  of  those  columns  in  which  the  number  repre- 
senting tlie  person's  age  is  found.    Heavy  card-board,  4xG.    Price  10  cts. 

n.     The  Pegents'  Questions  in  Arithmetic,  containing  the  1203  questions 
given  from  im(\  to  1882.    :Manilla,  IGmo,  pp.  93,  25  cts.    Key,  pp.  20,  23  cts. 
tW  The  Arithmetic  Questions  on  Slips  .iro  no  longer  published. 

1?.  Pit)}4f  Question  Book,  No.  IS,  Arithmetic.  By  Albert  P.  Southwicbk. 
Paper,  16mo,  pp.  39.    Price  10  cts. 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N,  Y. 


■THE  SCHOOL  BVLLETIN  PUBLICATIONS, 


Papers  on  Educational  Topics. 


1.  Some  Facts  about  our  Public  Schools.  A  plea  for  the  Township  Sys^ 
tem.    By  C.  W.  Bardeen.    8vo,  pp.  32.    25  cts. 

2.  Educational  Journalism.  Historical  and  Descriptive,  with  a  list  of 
Journals  now  Published.    By  C.  W.  Bardeen.    8vo,  pp.  30.    25  cts. 

3.  Teaching  as  a  Business  for  Men.  By  C.  W.  Bardeen.  8vo,  pp.  20.. 
25  cts. 

4.  The  Teacher's  Commercial  Value.  By  C.  W.  Bardeen.  8vo,  pp.  20^. 
25  cts. 

Intelligence,  Chicago,  says  of  the  two  last :  "  If  the  reader  wants  two- 
spicy  and  sensible  essays  by  the  keenest  educational  writer  of  the  day,  he- 
will  find  in  the  above  what  he  wants." 

5.  National  Education  in  Italy,  Germany,  England,  and  Wales.  By  Prof^ 
C.  W.  Bennett.    8vo,  pp.  28.    15  cts. 

6.  Modern  Languages  in  Education.  By  Prof.  Geo.  F.  Comfort.  16mo.. 
pp.  40.    25  cts.    Cloth,  50  cts. 

7.  Politics  and  Schools.    By  Sidney  G.  Cooke.    8vo,  pp.  23.    25  cts. 

8.  Limits  of  Oral  Teaching.    By  John  W.  Dickinson,  8vo,  pp.  8.    16  cts.. 

9.  Latin  in  High  Schools.    By  H.  P.  Emerson.    8vo,  pp.  9.    25  cts. 

10.  Natural  Science  in  the  Public  Schools.  By  Wm.  T.  Harris.  16mo,, 
pp.  40.    15  cts. 

11.  Powers  and  Duties  of  School  Officers.  By  A.  P.  Marble.  16mo,  pp.. 
27.    15  cts. 

12.  Sex  in  Mind  and  Education.  By  Prof.  H.  Maudslet.  16mo,  pp.  42.. 
35  cts. 

IS.  The  New  Education.  By  Prof  J.  M.  D.  Meikle.tohn.  16mo,  pp.  35.. 
15  cts. 

Ik.  Education  as  a  Department  of  Government.  By  Warner  Miller. 
8yo,  pp.  12.    15  cts. 

15.  Aspects  of  Industrial  Education.  By  H.  H.  Straight,  8vo,  pp.  12. 
15  cts. 

16  University  Degrees.  What  they  Mean,  what  they  Indicate,  and  How 
to  Use  them.    By  Flavel  S.  Thomas.    16mo,  pp,  40.    15  cts. 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y, 


■  THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS.- 


Books  for  the  School  Library. 

1.  Boderick  Hume,  the  Story  of  a  New  York  Teachei\  By  C.  W.  Bardeen. 
-Cloth,  IGmo,  pp.  295.    Price  S1.25. 

The  book  is  vivacious,  and  the  author  knows  the  ground  he  describes.— 
The  Nation.    I  can  certify  that  it  is  true  to  life.— >^.  J.  Bickoff. 

f.  Anecdotes  and  Ilvmors  of  School  Life.  By  Aaron  Sueeley.  Cloth, 
12mo,  pp.  350,  with  frontispiece.    Price  $1.50. 

The  collection  is  singularly  rich  and  varied,  and  the  volume  is  a  worthy 
contribution  to  tlie  literature  of  anecdote.— iVe2<;  York  Evening  Post. 

Tliis  compilation— which  is  the  only  one  of  its  kind  we  know  of— is 
wortliy  a  favorite  place  in  the  library  of  the  teacher,  or  the  general  reader. 
—Pa.  SchoolJournal. 

3.  A  Day  in  My  Life.,  or  Everyday  Experiences  at  Eton.  Cloth,  16mo, 
pp.  184.    Price,  Sl-00. 

It  is  that  very  rare  thing— a  work  of  natural,  brilliant,  yet  perfectly  in- 
nocent \i\xvciOV.— Literary  Churchman. 

We  are  assured  on  good  authority  that  this  amusing  little  volume  is  the 
genuine  production  of  an  Eton  boy.  We  do  not  doubt  it  in  the  least;  but  we 
feel  pretty  sure  that  he  is  not  the  idle  young  rascal  that  he  describes  himself 
as  being.  We  recommend  to  our  readers,  both  young  and  old,  this  most  en- 
tertaining little  hook.— Spectato?'. 

h.  Day  Dreams  of  a  Schoolmaster.  By  D'Arcy  W.  Thompson.  Cloth, 
16mo,  pp.  ;i28.    Price  $1.25. 

Tliis  delightful  little  volume  has  long  been  known  for  the  view  It  gives 
of  the  reflective  and  poetical  aspect  of  a  teacher's  life,  but  has  hitherto  been 
Inaccessible  in  the  rare  English  edition.  It  is  now  republished  in  beautiful 
form  at  a  moderate  price. 

5.  Thirteen  Stories  of  the  Far  West.  By  Forbes  Heermans.  Cloth,  16mo, 
pp.  260.    Price,  $1.25. 

Jlr.  Heermans  writes  of  what  he  has  seen  and  experienced,  and  he  has 
cauglit,  as  perhaps  no  other  than  Bret  Ilaite  has,  the  peculiarly  quaint  humor 
■of  life  in  the  western  mines. 

6.  Becreati07is  in  Ancient  Fields.  By  E.  C.  Lawrence.  Cloth,  12mo,  pp. 
177.    Price  SLOO. 

A  pleasant  hand-book  for  the  historical  reader. 

7.  Tuo  Months  in  Euwpe.  By  O.  R.  Burcuard.  Paper,  16mo,  pp.  168. 
Price,  50  cts. 

It  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  what  may  fairly  be  seen  on  a  vacation  trip. 

8.  Camps  and  Tramps  in  the  Adijvndacks.  By  Judge  A.  J.  Norturup. 
<!loth,  16m<>,  pp.  302.    l>rice  $1.25. 

It  smacks  of  the  woods,  breathing  their  true  spirit  in  narration  of  spirit- 
ed adventure. 

9.  Carleton  Island  in  the  Bevolution.  The  Old  Fort  and  its  Builders.  By 
W.  H.  Durham.    Paper,  16mo,  pp.  128,  Illustrated.    Price  50  cts. 

A  valuable  contribution  to  the  local  history  of  New  York. 

10.     The  Tree  of  Mythology .    By  Charles  DeB,  Mills.    Cloth,  Svo,  pp,  281. 
Price  $3.00. 

The  best  popular  work  on  mythology  we  have  in  English.— ?7«i^arian 
Jievietv. 

C.W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.[: 


THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS. 


Arithmetic  by  tlie  Grabe  Method. 

1.  First  Steps  among  Figxires.  A  drill  book  in  the  Fundamental  Rules- 
of  Arithmetic.  By  Levi  N.  Beebe.  Cloth.  16mo,  3  editions.  PiqALs'  Edi- 
tion,  pp.  140,  45  cts.  Oral  Edition,  pp.  139,  50  cts.  Teachers'  Edition,  includ- 
ing all  in  both  the  others,  with  additional  parallel  matter,  Index,  and  Key,, 
pp.  326,  Sl.OO. 

These  books  give  the  only  practical  exposition  of  the  Gnibe  Method,  now 
generally  admitted  to  produce  the  best  results  with  beginners.  It  has  beea 
used  ten  years  in  the  primary  schools  of  such  cities  as  Norwich,  Conn.,  and 
Auburn,  N.  y.,  and  for  many  years  every  student  in  the  Albany  State  Normal 
School  has  been  directed  to  purchase  a  copy  to  take  with  him  for  his  subse- 
quent use  in  teaching. 

From  a  multitude  of  testimonials  we  copy  the  following  : 

"  "We  are  still  successfully  using  Beebe's  First  Steps.  It  has  many  admi- 
rable qualities.  "—/S^?/j9V  N.  L.  Bis/iop,  Norwich,  Conn. 

"  I  think  it  especially  excellent  for  a  system  of  graded  schools,  where- 
uniformity  of  teaching  is  essential.  It  develops  in  practical  shape  an  idea 
that  I  have  long  sustained  as  to  the  proper  method  of  teaching  arithmetic.'* 
Stip''t  B.  B.  Snoio,  Auburn,  N.  Y. 

"I  have  recommended  Beebe's  First  Steps  as  the  best  work  in  primary- 
arithmetic.  .  .  .  The  book  is  received  with  much  favor,  and  is  very  helpful, 
to  me  in  my  work."— Prof.  A.  N.  Iliisted,  State  Normal  School,  Albany,  N.  Y.. 

"I  am  much  pleased  with  the  book,  and  wish  every  primary  teacher  to 
have  a  copy.'"— Sup' t  .1.  M.  Fivst,  Hxidson,  N.  Y. 

"  By  vote  of  the  Board  of  Education  a  copy  of  the  Teachers'  Edition- 
was  placed  on  the  desk  of  every  primary  teacher  in  the  c\tY.—Sup''t  Edward. 
Smith,  Syi'acuse,  N.  Y. 

"I  consider  Beebe's  First  Steps  the  best  work  of  the  kind  that  I  have- 
ever  seen,  and  I  take  every  opportunity  to  recommend  it.'"— Mary  L.  Sutliff,. 
Haiku,  Maui,  Hawaian  Islands,  Feb.  9, 1888. 

2  Tlie  Pestalozzian  Series  of  Arithmetics.  Teachers'  Manual  and  First- 
Year  Text-Book  for  pupils  in  the  first  grade.  Based  upon  Pestalozzi's 
method  of  teaching  Elementary  Number.  By  James  H.  Hoose.  Boards, 
16mo,  2  editions.  Pujnls''  Edition,  pp.  156,  35  cts.  Teacher's  Edition,  contain- 
ing the  former,  with  additional  matter,  pp.  217,  50  cts. 

This  is  a  practical  exposition  of  the  Pestalozzian  Method,  and  has  met  with- 
great  success  not  only  in  the  Cortland  Normal  School,  whei*e  it  was  first 
developed,  but  in  many  other  leading  schools,  as  at  Gloversville,  Babylon, 
etc.  It  is  diametrically  opposed  to  the  Grube  Method,  and  good  teachers^ 
should  be  familiar  with  both,  that  they  may  choose  intelligently  betweeuv 
them. 

S.  Lessons  in  Ntimber,  as  given  in  a  Pestalozzian  School,  Cheam  Surrey^ 
The  Master's  Manual    By  C.  Reiner.    16mo,  pp.  224.    S1.50. 

This  work  was  prepared  in  lass  under  the  supervision  of  Dr.  C  Mayo  in. 
the  first  English  Pestalozzian  school,  and  has  particular  value  ag  represent- 
ing directly  the  educational  methods  of  the  great  reformer. 

.   C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


THE  SCHOOL  BULLETW  PUBLICATIONS. 

Useful  Appliances  in  Arithmetic. 

1.  The  Wcn'd  Method  in  Number.  A  series  of  45  Cards,  on  which  are 
printed  all  the  possible  Combinations  of  Two  Figures.  In  box.  By  H.  IL 
SJLNroKD,  Institute  Canductor.    Size  3>4  x  6  inches.    Price  50  cts. 

These  cards  need  only  to  be  seen,  as  the  principle  is  familiar  and  ao- 
cepted.  The  type,  in  written  figures,  is  large  enough  to  be  seen  across  the 
Toom,  and  the  combination  on  one  side  is  given  in  reversed  order  on  the 
■other,  so  that  as  the  teacher  holds  the  card  before  him  he  knows  the  figures 
presented  to  the  class.  The  pupil  is  taught  to  look  upon  the  combination 
4-f  9  as  itself  13,  not  as  "4  and  9  are  13,"  just  as  he  looks  upon  DOG  as  an 
-entire  word,  not  as  D-O-Gr.  Success  is  certain  if  new  combinations  are  in- 
troduced only  after  those  already  given  are  thoroughly  learned.  Reviews 
«hould  be  constant. 

2.  A  Fractional  Apparatus.  By  W.  W.  Davis.  A  box  of  eight  wooden 
l)alls,  three  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter,  seven  of  which  are  sawn  into 
12,  3,  4,  G,  8,  9,  and  12  parts  respectively,  while  the  eighth  is  left  a  spheres 
Price  $4.00. 

With  this  apparatus  every  principle  and  rule  can  be  developed,  and  the 
pupils  can  be  led  to  deduce  rules  for  themselves. 

Many  other  expedients  are  resorted  to,  but  they  are  all  objectionable. 
Suppose  a  teacher  takes  a  stick  and  breaks  it  in  the  middle,  will  the  pupil 
perceive  two  halves  of  a  stick  or  two  sticks?  In  teaching  fractions  object- 
ively, that  should  be  taken  for  unity  from  which  if  a  part  is  taken  unity  is 
destroyed.  This  is  not  the  case  with  a  stick  or  cube.  Apples  are  objection- 
Able  for  three  reasons  ;  first  because  they  cannot  always  be  obtained ;  sec- 
ond because  they  are  perishable ;  and  third,  because  the  attention  of  the 
pupils  is  diverted  by  a  desire  to  know  whether  they  are  sweet  or  sour,  etc. 
:Not  can  the  teacher  readily  saw  wooden  balls  into  divisions  even  enough  for 
the  purpose  designed,  the  charm  of  this  method  being  the  exact  presentation 
to  the  pupil's  eye  of  the  fact  illustrated. 

3.  A  Manual  of  Suggestions  for  Teaching  Fractions  especially  designed 
for  accompanying  the  above  apparatus.  By  \V.  W.  Davis.  Paper,  12mo, 
pp.  43.    25  cts. 

This  accompanying  manual  gives  probably  the  best  arrangement  of  th« 
subject  into  sixty  lessons  ever  made,  with  practical  suggestions  which  all 
teachers  will  find  valuable. 

h.     Cube  Root  Blocks,  carried  to  Tlu-ee  Places.    In  box.    $1-00. 

Our  blocks  are  unusually  large,  the  inner  cube  being  two  inches,  and  the 
additions  each  one-half  inch  wide. 

5.    Numeral  Frame,  with  100  balls,  $1.25 ;  with  144  balls,  $1.50. 

"Initiate  cliildren  to  arithmetic  l)y  means  of  the  ballfrune  alone,  there- 
by  making  their  elementary  instruction  a  simple  and  natmal  extension  of 
their  own  daily  obscrvatioT\,"  says  Laurie,  in  his  standard  book  on  Primary 
Instruction  (p.  IVi),  and  as  he  leaves  the  subject  of  arithmetic,  ho  adds  this 
Dote  (p.  117),  as  if  in  fear  he  had  not  been  sufliciently  emphatic : 

"  The  teaching  of  arithmetic  should  be  begun  earlier  than  is  customary, 
'Ond  always  with  Via  ball  frame.'' 

C.  W.  BAKOEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS. 

Biographies  of  Noted  Educators. 

1,  PestcUozzi :  his  Aim  and  Work.  By  Baron  De  Guimps.  Translated  by 
Margaret  Cuthbertson  Crombie.    Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  336,  $1.50. 

"  A  teacher  knowing  nothing  of  Pestalozzi  would  be  like  the  lawyer  that 
has  never  heard  of  Blackstone.  We  commend  this  book  strongly  as  specially 
adapted  to  younger  students  of  pedagogy."— O^io  EdH  Monthly,  June,  1889. 

"  To  those  who  seek  to  know  how  one  of  the  world's  greatest  reformers 
planned  and  executed  his  work,  how  this  and  that  grand  principle  was 
wrought  out,  how  truth  was  dissociated  from  error,  this  volume  will  be  a 
delightful  treasure.  And  there  are  many  such  who  are  not  content  to  know 
the  name  and  nothing  more,  but  seek  to  understand  the  man  and  the  motive. 
To  such  this  book  is  indispensable."— ^(fwca^iowa/  Courant,  July,  1889. 

S.  Autobiography  of  F?'iedrich  Froebel.  Translated  and  annotated  by 
Emuie  Michaelis  and  H.  Keatley  Moore.    Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  183,  $1.50. 

"  He  writes  so  simply  and  confidentially  that  no  one  can  fail  to  under- 
stand everything  in  this  new  translation.  It  would  be  of  great  benefit  to 
American  youth  for  fathers  and  mothers  to  read  this  book  for  themselves, 
instead  of  leaving  it  entirely  to  professional  teachers."— iVeif  York  Herald. 
Aug.  4,  1889. 

3.  A  Memoir  of  Roger  Ascham,  by  Samuel  Johnson,  LL.D.  ;  and  Selec- 
tions from  the  Life  of  T/iomas  Arnold,  by  Dean  Stanley.  Edited,  with 
Introductions  and  Notes  by  James  S.  Carlisle.  Cloth,  IGmo,  pp.  252,  $1.00. 
,  Besides  the  biography  of  Ascham  in  full  this  volume  contains  selections 
from  "  The  Scholemaster,"  with  fac-simile  of  the  ancient  title-page.  From 
Stanley's  "  Life  of  Arnold  "  those  chapters  have  been  taken  which  refer  to 
his  work  as  a  teacher,  and  are  published  without  change.  Thus  the  book 
gives  in  small  compass  and  at  a  low  price  all  that  is  most  important  in  the 
lives  of  these  two  great  teachers. 

L  John  Amos  Comenius,  Bisho})  of  the  Moravians  ;  his  Life  and  Educa- 
tional Woi'ks.     Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  229,  $1.00. 

Our  recent  republication  of  his  famous  OrUs  Pictus  has  added  interest 
to  the  life  of  the  famous  reformer. 

5.  Essays  on  Educational  Reformers.  By  R.  H.  Quick.  Cloth,  16mo, 
pp.  331,  $1.50. 

Much  the  best  edition  of  this  famous  work,  which  its  vivacious  style 
makes  the  most  interesting  of  educational  histories. 

6.  Pedagogical  Biography.  A  series  of  reprints  from  Quick's  "Educa- 
tional Reformers,"  giving  the  most  important  sketches  separately.  In  pam- 
phlet form,  at  a  uniform  price  of  15  cts.  each.  There  are  7  numbers,  as  follows: 

I.  The  Jesuits,  Ascham,  Montaigne,  Ratich,  Milton. 

II,  John  Amos  Comenius.  III.    John  Locke. 

IV.  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau.  V.    John  Bernhard  Basedow. 

VI.  Joseph  Jacotot.  VIL    John  Henry  Pestalozzi. 

C.  W,  BAKDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


,*■*•;<''** 


THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS. 


Life  and  Works  of  Pestalozzi. 

1.  Pestalozzi :  his  Aim  and  Work.  By  Baron  De  Gctmps.  Translated 
by  Margaret  Cuthbertson  Crombie.    Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  336,  Sl-50. 

Demands  a  deep  and  earnest  perusal.— T'eoc^rs'  Aid^  London,  Feb.  2» 
1889. 

Among  the  best  books  that  could  be  added  to  the  teacher's  library.— 
Chautauquan,  Oct.,  1889. 

It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  book  affords  the  fullest  material  for  a 
knowledge  of  the  life  of  the  great  educational  reformer.— ii^emry  Worlds 
June  22,  1889. 

Should  be  carefully  studied  by  every  teacher.— 7^^  Pac(/?c  .E'cZwca^ion^^ 
Journal,  Aug.,  1889. 

The  most  satisfactory  biography  of  Pestalozzi  accessible  to  English 
residers.— Wisconsin  Joii7'nal  of  Education,  Aug.,  1889. 

There  is  not  a  teacher  anywhere  who  cannot  learn  something  by  the 
perusal  of  this  work.—Science,  June  7,  1889. 

The  work  is  a  timely  reminder  how  far  we  have  strayed  in  following  the 
deity  of  "  examination,"  which  should  have  been  kept  in  its  place  as  the 
handmaid  of  education.—  The  Schoolmaste7\  London,  Feb.  16, 1889. 

2.  Pestalozzi  and  Pestalozzianism.  By  R.  IL  Quick.  Paper,  16rao,  pp. 
40,  15  cts. 

i"       This  is  a  reprint  from  Quick's  Educational,  Reformers,  and  contains  the 
best  brief  abstract  that  has  ever  been  WTitten. 

3.  Tlie  Pestalozzian  Series  of  Arithmetics.  Teachers'  Manual  and  Firet- 
Year  Text-Book  for  pupils  in  the  first  grade.  Based  upon  Pestalozzi'a 
method  of  teaching  Elementary  Number.  By  James  H.  IIoose.  Boards, 
16mo,  2  editions.  Pupil's  Edition,  pp.  1.56,  35  cts.  Teacher's  Edition,  contain- 
ing the  former,  with  additional  matter,  pp.  217,  50  cts. 

This  is  a  practical  exposition  of  the  Pestalozzian  Method,  and  has  met 
with  gi-eat  success  not  only  in  the  Cortland  Normal  School,  wliore  it  was 
first  developed,  but  in  many  other  leading  schools,  a.s  at  Gloversville,  Baby- 
lon, etc.  It  is  diametrically  opposed  to  the  Grube  Method,  and  good  teach- 
ers should  be  familiar  with  both,  that  they  may  choose  intelligently  between 
them. 

h.  Lessons  in  Number,  as  given  in  a  Pestalozzian  School,  Cheam,  Surrey. 
The  Master's  Manual.    By  C.  Reixer.    Cloth,  16mo,  pp.  224.    §1.50. 

5.  Lessons  in  Form,  or,  an  Introduction  to  Oeometry  as  given  in  a  Pesta- 
lozzian School,  Cheam,  Surrey.    By  C.  Reiner.    Cloth,  16mo,  pp.  215.    Sl-50. 

Both  4  and  5  in  one  volume,  S~00. 

These  works  were  prepared  in  1835  under  the  supervision  of  Dr.  C.  Mayo 
In  the  first  English  Pestalozzian  school,  and  have  particular  value  as  lepro- 
senting  directly  the  educational  methods  of  the  great  reformer. 

C.  W.  BAKDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


■  THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS.- 


Froebel  and  the  Kindergarten. 

1.  Autobiography  of  Friedrich  Froebel.    Translated  and  annotated  by 
uz  MiCHAELis  and  H.  Keatly  Moore.    Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  183.    $1.50. 
Useful  and  interesting    *    *    *    among  the  best  that  could  be  added  to 

the  teacher's  library. —TA^  Chautauquan,  Oct.,  1889. 

There  is  no  better  introduction  to  the  Kindergarten.— Tri«co;wi/i  Journal 
of  Education,  Sept.,  1889. 

It  is  a  book  which  can  be  trusted  to  make  its  own  way.— The  Independent, 
Oct.  10, 1889. 

These  two  books  [Froebel  and  Pestalozzi]  recently  from  the  press  of  the 
enterprising  and  discriminating  house  of  C.  W.  Bardeen,  are  the  last  and  not 
the  least  important  contribution  to  American  pedagogical  literature.  The 
professional  library  is  incomplete  without  thQm..— Canada  School  Journal, 
Sept.,  1889. 

2.  Child  and  Child-Nature.  Contributions  to  the  understanding  of 
Froebel's  Educational  Theories.  By  the  Baroness  Marenholtz-Buelow. 
Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  207.    S1.50. 

It  is  a  fit  companion  to  the  Autobiography  and  the  two  are  published  in 
the  same  style— a  capital  idea— and  a  royal  pair  of  volumes  they  make.— 
Educational  Courant,  Oct.,  1889. 

Its  design  is  to  illustrate  the  theory  and  philosophy  of  Froebel's  system. 
It  does  this  so  clearly  and  pleasingly  as  to  give  no  excuse  for  criticism.  *  * 
*  *  The  volume  is  one  profitable  for  every  mother,  as  well  as  every  teacher 
of  children.—,  Chicago  Interocean,  Sept.  14, 1889. 

3.  The  First  Three  Years  of  ChildJiood,  By  B.  Perez,  with  an  Intro- 
duction by  Pi-of .  Sully.    Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  294.    $1.50. 

The  eminent  English  psychologist.  Prof.  Sully  says  that  Perez  combines 
in  a  very  happy  and  unusual  way  the  different  qualifications  of  a  good  ob- 
server of  Cliildren,  and  that  he  has  given  us  the  fullest  account  yet  pub- 
lished of  the  facts  of  child-life.  *  *  *  The  typography  of  the  work  is 
excellent,  and  in  external  appearance  the  book  is  by  far  the  handsomest 
American  edition  issvie^..— Journal  of  Pedagogy,  April,  1889. 

h.  The  Kindergarten  System.  Principles  of  Froebel's  System,  and  their 
bearing  on  the  Education  of  Women.  Also  Remarks  on  the  Higher  Educa- 
tion of  Women.    By  Emily  Shirreff.    Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  200.    $1.00. 

5.  Essays  on  the  Kindergarten.  Being  a  selection  of  Lectures  read  be- 
fore the  London  Froebel  Society.    Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  175.    $1.00. 

6.  Pnmary  Helps.  A  Kindergarten  Manual  for  Public  School  Teachers. 
Svo,  boards,  pp.  58,  with  15  full  page  plates.    75  cts. 

7.  The  Neio  Education.  Edited  by  W.  N.  Hailmann.  Vols.  V  and  VI, 
the  last  published.    Each  Svo,  cloth,  pp.  146.    $2.00. 

S.  The  New  Education.  By  Prof.  J.  M.  D.  Meikeljohn.  Pai)er,  16mo, 
pp.  35.    15  cts.  * 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS.- 


The  OrMs  Pictus  of  Comenius. 

This  beautiful  volume,  (Cloth, 
8vo,  large  paper,  top-edge  gilt, 
others  uncut,  pp.  197,  §3.00)  is  a 
reprint  of  the  English  edition  of 
1727,  hut  with  reproduction  of  the 
151  copper-cut  illustrations  of  the 
original  edition  of  16.58.  A  copy 
of  the  rare  original  commands 
a  hundred  dollars,  and  this  re- 
print must  be  considered  the 
most  important  contribution  to 
pedagogical  literature  yet  made. 
It  was  not  only  the  first  book 
of  object  lessons,  but  the  first 
text-book  in  general  use,  and  in- 
deed, as  the  Encyclqpceclia  Bri- 
tannica  states,  "the  first  chil- 
dren's picture-book." 

EXTRACTS  FROM  CRITICISMS. 

The  book  is  a  beautiful  piece  of  work,  and  in  every  way  superior  to 
most  of  the  fac  similes  we  have  so  far  been  presented  with.— iV.  Y.  World, 

C  W.  Bardeen,  of  Syracuse,  has  placed  lovers  of  quaint  old  books  un- 
der obligation  to  him.— iV.  Y.  Sun. 

We  welcome  this  resurrection  of  the  Orbis  Pictus  Sensualum  Picttis, 
which  has  lain  too  long  in  suspended  amination.  This  master-piece  of  Com- 
enius, the  prince  of  European  educators  in  the  17th  century,  was  the 
greatest  boon  ever  conferred  on  the  little  ones  in  primaiy  schools.— JV'a^ion. 

Comenius's  latest  editor  and  publisher  has  therefore  given  us  both  a 
curiosity  and  a  wholesome  bit  of  ancient  instruction  in  his  handsome  re- 
print of  this  pioneer  -work.— Critic. 

The  old  wood  illustrations  are  reproduced  with  absolute  fidelity  by  a 
photographic  process,  and  as  the  text  follows  closely  letter  by  letter  the  old 
text,  the  book  is  substantially  a  copy  of  the  rare  original.— Zi/erary  World. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  find  an  e<lucational  work  which  would  exer- 
cise a  stronger  fascination  upon  the  minds  of  tlie  young.— ^;/i.  Book-maker. 

The  reproduction  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  the  work  and  makes  a  most 
interesting  volume  for  reference,  especially  as  an  illustration  of  the  customs, 
manners,  beliefs,  and  arts  of  the  17th  century.— Independent. 

Every  educational  library  r7itist  have  a  copy  of  the  book,  if  it  wishes  to 
lay  any  claim  whatever  to  completeness,  and  as  the  edition  is  limited,  orders 
should  be  sent  early.  We  say  right  hero  that  twenty-five  dollars  will  not 
take  our  copy  unless  we  are  sure  we  can  replace  It.— Educational  Courant. 

C.  W.  BAllDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.  * 


■THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS.- 


Helps  toward  Correct  Speech. 

1.  Verbal  Pitfalls:  a  manual  of  1500  words  commonly  misused,  includ-, 
iag  all  those  the  use  of  which  in  any  sense  has  been  questioned  by  Dean 
Alvord,  G.  W,  Moon,  Fitzedward  Hall,  Archbishop  Trench,  Wm.  C.  Hodg- 
son, W.  L.  Blackley,  G.  F.  Graham,  Richard  Grant  White,  M.  Scheie  de  Vere, 
Wm.  Mathews,  "  Alfred  Ayres, "  and  many  others.  Arranged  alphabetically, 
with  3000  references  and  quotations,  and  the  ruling  of  the  dictionaries. 
By  C.  W.  BxBDEEN.    16mo,  cloth,  pp.  223.    75  cts. 

Perhaps  the  happiest  feature  of  the  book  is  Its  interesting  form.  Some 
hundreds  of  anecdotes  have  been  gathered  to  Illustrate  the  various  pomts 
made.  These  have  the  advantage  not  only  of  making  the  work  entertain- 
ing, but  of  fixing  the  point  in  the  mind  as  a  mere  precept  could  not  do.  The 
type  indicates  at  a  glance  whether  the  use  of  a  word  is  (1)  indefensible,  (.2) 
defensible  but  objectionable,  or  (3)  thoroughly  authorized. 

S.  A  System  of  Bhetoric.  By  C.  W.  Bardken.  12mo,  half  leather,  pp. 
«13.    $1.75. 

S.  A  Shorter  Course  in  Rhetoric.  ByC.  W.  Bardben.  12mo,  half  leather, 
pp.  311.    $1.00. 

h.  Outlines  of  Sentence  Making.  By  C.  W.  Bardeen.  12mo,  cloth,  pp. 
187.    75  cts. 

5.  Practical  Phonics.  A  comprehensive  study  of  Pronunciation,  form- 
ing a  complete  guide  to  the  study  of  elementary  sounds  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage, and  containing  3,000  words  of  difficult  pronunciation,  with  diacriti- 
cal marks  according  to  Webster's  Dictionary.  By  E.  V.  De  Graff.  16mo, 
cloth,  pp.  108.    75  cts. 

The  book  before  us  is  the  latest,  and  in  many  respects  the  best,  of  the 
manuals  prepared  for  this  purpose.  The  directions  for  teaching  elementary 
sounds  are  remarkably  expUcit  and  simple,  and  the  diacritical  marks  are 
fuller  than  in  any  other  book  we  know  of,  the  obscure  vowels  being  mai  ked, 
as  well  as  the  accented  ones.  This  manual  is  not  like  others  of  the  kind,  a 
simple  reference  book.  It  is  meant  for  careful  study  and  drill,  and  is  es- 
pecially adapted  to  class  n^Q.—New  England  Journal  of  Education. 

6.  Pocket  Pronunciation  Book.,  containing  the  3,000  words  of  difficult 
pronunciation,  with  diacritical  marks  according  to  Webster's  Dictionary. 
By  E.  V.  De  Graff.    16mo,  maniUa,  pp.  47.    15  cts. 

Every  vowel  that  can  possibly  be  mispronounced  is  guarded  by  danger 
signals  which  send  one  back  to  the  phonic  chart  for  instructions.  We  are 
glad  to  notice  that  the  Professor  is  leading  a  campaign  against  the  despoil- 
ers  of  the  vowel  u  ;  he  cannot  hold  communion  with  an  educated  man  whose 
third  day  in  the  week  is  "Toosday."— iVoril/i^m  Christian  Advocate, 

7.  Studies  in  Articulation :  a  study  and  drill-book  in  the  Alphabetic  Ele- 
ments of  the  EnglLsh  language.  Eifth  thousand.  By  J.  H.  Hoose.  16mo, 
cloth,  pp.  70.    50  cts. 

This  work  not  only  analyzes  each  sound  in  the  language,  but  gives  as 
illustrations  hundreds  of  words  commonly  mispronounced. 

Dr.  Hoose's  "  Studies  in  Articulation  "  is  the  most  useful  manual  of  the 
kind  that  I  know  of.  It  should  be  a  text-book  in  every  Teachers'  Institute. 
— A.  J.  Pickoff,formerl!/  Sujft  of  Schools  at  Cleveland  and  at  Yonkers. 

8.  Hints  on  Teaching  Ortfweprj.  By  Chas.  T.  Pooler.  16mo,  paper,  pp. 
15.    10  cts. 

9.  Question  Book  of  Orth/ygraphy,  Orthmpy,  and  Etymology.,  with  Notes, 
Queries,  etc.    By  Axbert  P.  Southwick.    16mo,  paper,  pp.  40,    10  »3ts. 

10.  Question  Book  of  Reading  and  Punctuation.,  with  Notes,  Queries,  etc. 
By  Albert  P.  Southwick.    16mo,  paper,  pp.  38.    10  cts. 

C.  W.  BARDEEN^,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  liT,  Y, 


THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS. 


Blakely's  Parliamentary  Eules. 

This  valuable  little  work  contains  a  Chart  which  shows  the  relation  of 
any  Motion  to  every  other  Motion,  and  also  answers  at  a  glance  2,427  Ques^ 
tions  in  the  practice  of  Parliamentary  Law.  It  gives  also  Comments  on  the 
different  Jlotions,  with  additional  notes  and  explanations,  the  manner  of 
stating  certain  Questions,  and  one  or  more  forms  for  making  the  various 
Motions  used  in  deliberative  assemblies. 

It  gives  more  information,  in  smaller  space,  in  more  convenient  form, 
and  at  a  cheaper  price,  than  any  other  manual  issued.  In  fact,  as  U.  S. 
Senator  Stewart  says,  "  It  is  the  entire  subject  in  a  nutshell,  and  will  save 
laborious  research  through  volumes  of  parliamentary  law,  for  which  few 
have  the  leisure  or  the  means  at  hand." 

Teachers,  Students,  Professional  Men,  Politicians,  Of&cials  of  all  organi- 
zations, in  fact  Every  Citizen  should  have  a  copy.  It  can  be  easily  folded 
and  carried  in  a  pocket-book  so  as  to  be  always  at  hand. 

The  arrangement  is  so  perfect  that  any  rule  applying  to  any  motion 
may  be  seen  at  a  glance,  and  one  can  tell  immediatehj  whether  or  not  any 
given  motion  is  in  order  when  another  motion  is  pending.  It  thus  gives  in- 
stant information  on  any  point  arising,  answering  from  40  to  65  question  in 
regard  to  to  every  motion,  without  the  trouble  of  turning  a  leaf. 

Thus  it  shows  in  regard  to  every  kind  of  motion  whether  it  can  or  can- 
not be: 

(1)  debated,  (3)  laid  on  the  table,       (5)  committed,       (7)  renewed. 

(2)  amended,        (4)  postponed,  (6)  reconsidered. 

Also  whether  it  requires:  (8)  to  be  seconded,  (9)  to  be  in  writing,  (10) 
previous  notice,  (11)  a  two-thirds  vote. 

Also  whether  it  (12)  can  have  the  previous  question  applied,  (13)  does  or 
does  not  open  the  main  question,  (14-55)  yields  to  or  takes  precedence  of 
each  of  the  other  41  possible  motions.  It  thus  answers  55  questions  with  re- 
gard to  each  of  the  42  motions,  or  2,310  questions;  to  which  are  added  103 
rules  and  notes,  8  definitions,  and  6  orders  of  precedence  of  classes,  making 
in  all  2,427  questions  answered,  besides  giving  each  motion  and  assigning  it 
to  its  proper  place. 

From  hundreds  of  testimonials  we  give  the  following: 

"Will  unquestionably  be  of  great  service  to  persons  who  desire  to  re- 
vive a  knowledge  of  parliamentary  law  suddenly,  for  any  important  occa- 
sion."—//oh.  Geo.  F.  Hoar,  LL.  D.,  U.  S.  Senator. 

"  Will  be  very  convenient  for  persons  who  wish  information  on  parlia> 
mentary  law  in  tlie  smallest  possible  compass. "—//on.  Geo.  F.  Edmunds, 
U.  S.  Senator. 

"Tlie  most  complete  work  of  the  kind  that  I  have  seen.  It  is  handy, 
convenient,  and  of  great  value  for  ready  reference,  and  as  a  guide  for  presid- 
ing officers  it  is  unequalled."— //on.  Robert  Howe,  Sjmiker  of  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Slate  of  California,  Jan.  18,  1889. 

On  Parchment  Paper.  4  i^p.  5x0.    Price  25  cts. 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS. 

Helps  in  Teaching  Literature. 

1.  A  Series  of  Questions  in  English  and  AmeHcan  Literature,  prepared 
for  class  drill  and  private  study  by  Maky  F.  Hendrick,  teacher  in  the  State 
Normal  School,  Cortland,  N.  Y.    16mo,  boards,  pages  100,  interleaved.   35cts. 

This  edition  is  especially  prepared  for  taking  notes  in  the  literature 
class,  and  may  be  used  in  connection  with  any  text-book  or  under  any  in- 
struction. 

S.  Early  EnglisJi  Literature,  from  the  Lay  of  Beowulf  to  Edmund  Spen- 
ser. By  Wm.  B.  Haklow,  instructor  in  the  High  School,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
26mo,  cloth,  pp.  138.    75  cts. 

This  handsome  volume  gives  copious  extracts  from  all  leading  authors, 
»)f  sufficient  length  to  afford  a  fair  taste  of  their  style,  while  its  biogi-aphical 
and  critical  notes  give  it  rare  value. 

S.  Dime  Question  Booh  No.  3,  General  Literature,  and  No.  13,  American 
Literature.    By  Albert  P.  Southwick.    16mo,  paper,  pp.  35, 39.    10  cts.  each. 

These  are  among  the  most  interesting  books  in  the  series,  abounding  in 
■allusion  and  suggestion,  as  well  as  giving  full  answers  to  every  question. 
They  afford  a  capital  drill,  and  should  be  used  in  every  class  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  examination. 

U.  Iloto  to  Obtain  the  Greatest  Value  from  a  Book.  By  the  Rev.  R.  W. 
LoAVRiE.    8vo,  pp.  12,    25  cts. 

No  one  can  read  this  essay  without  pleasure  and  profit. 

5.  The  Art  of  Questioniiig.  By  Joshua  G.  Fitch.  16mo,  paper,  pp.  36. 
15  cts. 

Mr.  Fitch,  on©  of  Her  Majesty's  inspectors  of  schools,  now  recognized  as 
the  ablest  of  English  writei-s  on  education,  owed  his  early  reputation  to  this 
address,  the  practical  helpfulness  of  which  is  everywhere  acknowledged. 

6.  The  Art  of  Securing  Attention.  By  Joshua  G.  Fitch.  16mo,  paper, 
pp.  43.    15  cts. 

The  3taryland  School  Journal  well  says:  "  It  is  itself  an  exemplification 
of  the  problem  discussed,  for  the  first  page  fixes  the  attention  so  that  the 
reader  never  wearies,  till  he  comes  to  the  last  and  then  wishes  that  the  end 
had  not  come  so  soon." 

7.  The  ElocuiionisVs  Annual,  comprising  new  and  popular  Readings, 
Recitations,  Declamations,  Dialogues,  Tableaux,  etc.,  etc.  Compiled  oy 
Mis.  J.  W.  Shoemaker.  Paper,  16mo,  pp.  200.  12  Numbers.  Price  of  each, 
30  cts. 

Though  primarily  designed  for  classes  in  elocution,  the  character  of  the 
selections  is  so  high  that  any  of  these  volumes  may  be  used  with  profit  in  a 
literature  class. 

8.  The  Bible  in  the  Public  Schools.  Paper,  24mo,  2  vols.,  pp.  214,  223. 
50  cts. 

These  volumes  contain  the  most  important  arguments,  decisions,  and 
addresses  connected  with  the  celebrated  contest  in  Cincinnati,  1869. 

C.  W.  BAKDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


m^?y.^':^wi--%^'^im^m^ 


■THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS. 


Helps  in  Teaching  History. 

1.  A  Thousand  Questions  in  American  History.  16mo,  cloth,  pp.  247. 
Price  $1.00. 

This  work  has  been  prepared  by  an  eminent  teacher  for  use  in  his  own 
school— one  of  the  largest  in  tlie  State.  It  shows  rare  breadth  of  view  and 
discrimination,  dealing  not  merely  with  events  but  with  causes,  and  with  the 
side-issues  that  have  so  much  to  do  with  determining  the  destiny  of  a  nation. 

S.  Helps  in  Fixing  the  Facts  of  American  History.  By  Henry  C.  Nor- 
THAM.    IGmo,  cloth,  pp.  2()8.    Price  $1.00. 

Here  all  facts  are  presented  in  groups.    The       L— exington. 
key-word  to  the  Revolution,  for  instance,  is     '  I— ndependence. 
LIBERTY,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  table       B— urgoyne's  Surrender. ' 
of  Key-Words  ;  and  in  like  manner  the  events  of       E— vacuation. 
the  late  civil  war  are  kept  chronologically  dis-       R— etribution. 
tinct  by  the  key-words  SLAVES  FREED.   Chart       T— reason. 
No.  1  indicates  by  stars  the  years  in  each  decade       Y— orktown.  , 
from  1492  to  1789,  in  which  tlie  most  remarkable  events  occured,  while  the 
colored  chart  No.  2  arranges  the  events  in  twelve  groups. 

5.  Topics  and  lieferences  in  American  History,  with  numerous  ^Search 
Questions.    By  Geo.  A.  Williams.    IGmo,  leatherette,  pp.  50.    50  cts. 

This  is  a  book  of  immediate  practical  value  to  every  teacher.  The  refer- 
ences are  largely  to  the  lighter  and  more  interesting  illustrations  of  history, 
of  a  kind  to  arouse  the  thought  of  pupils  by  giving  vivid  conceptions  of  the 
events  narrated.  By  dividing  these  references  among  the  members  of  a  class, 
the  history  recitation  may  be  made  the  most  delightful  of  the  day. 

A.  Dime  (Question  Books,  No.  5,  General  History,  and  No.  G,  United  States 
History  and  Civil  Governfnent.  By  Albert  P.  Soutitwick.  IGmo,  paper,  pp. 
37,32.    lOcts.  each. 

5.  Outlines  and  Questions  in  United  States  History.  By  C.  B.  Van  Wie. 
16mo,  paper,  pp.  40,  and  folding  Map.    15  cts.  ^ 

The  outgrowth  of  four  years'  practical  work  in  the  school-room  with 
map  prepared  by  a  pupil  as  a  suggestive  model. 

6.  Tablet  of  American  History,  with  Map  of  the  United  States  on  the 
back.  By  RuFus  Bla>cuard.  Heavy  paper,  mounted  on  rollers,  8}^  by  5 
feet.    Price,  express  paid,  $3.00. 

The  demand  for  a  colored  chart  to  hang  upon  the  wall  and  thus  catch 
the  often-lifted  eye  of  the  pupil,  lias  led  to  the  preparation  of  this  chart  by 
an  experienced  author.  The  events  of  the  four  centuries  are  grouped  iu 
parallel  belts  of  different  colors,  and  upon  the  corners  and  sides  are  names 
of  the  States  and  Territories,  with  their  etymology,  etc.,  history  of  political 
parties,  portraits  of  all  the  Presidents,  Coats  of  Arms  of  all  the  States,  etc. 
The  map  is  engraved  expressly  for  this  chart  by  Rand  &  McNally,  is  colored 
both  by  States  and  by  counties,  and  gives  all  the  latest  railroads,  the  new  ar- 
rangement of  time-lines,  showing  where  the  liour  changes,  etc. 

C.  W,  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


■THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS.- 


Helps  in  Teaching  Creography. 

I.  T^yjim^  (JeogfrapAy,  with  Methods  and  Supplementary  Notes.  By  Ida 
L.  Gritfij^,  School  Commissioner  for  the  Third  District,  Oswego  County^ 
N.  Y.    Leatherette,  12mo,  pp.  142.    50  cts. 

This  is  a  complete  manual  of  geography,  covering  the  entire  subject.  It 
outlines  in  detail  what  should  be  taught,  when  it  should  be  taught,  and  how 
it  should  be  taught.  In  addition  to  this  a  large  number  of  Supplementary 
Notes  are  given,  which  are  invaluable  to  the  teacher.  *  *  *  It  is  the 
most  complete  and  helpful  guide  in  teaching  the  subject  that  has  ever  been 
written.—^.  P.  Chapin,  editor  Educational  Gazette. 

S.  Oral  Instmction  in  Geography.  By  Emma  L.  Pakdon,  Paper,  16mo» 
pp.  29.    15  cts. 

3.  Conversational  Lessons  leading  to  Geography.  By  H.  C.  Northam. 
Lewis  County  Edition.    Paper,  16mo,  pp.  43.    25  cts. 

L     The  same.    Oneida  County  Edition.    Pp.  46.    25  cts. 

5.  A  Brief  Geography  of  Onondaga  County.  By  C.  W.  Bardeen.  Paper, 
16mo,  pp.  48,  with  Map.    25  cts. 

The  last  three  are  prepared  for  local  use  in  the  State  of  New  York  and 
have  general  interest  only  by  way  of  suggestion. 

6.  KeTjle  Outlines  of  Geography.  By  Josephine  K.  Brown.  Paper,  16mo, 
pp.  59.    25  cts. 

7.  The  Regents^  Questions  in  Geography  from  the  First  Examination  to 
that  of  June,  1882.    Manilla,  16mo,  pp.  70.    25  cts. 

8.  Key  to  the  above.    Manilla,  pp.  36.    25  cts.  "^  t  i 
These  1987  questions  and  answers  have  had  a  larger  sale  than  those  in- 

any  other  subject,  and  are  generally  recognized  as  the  best  general  review 
attainable. 

9.  The  Uniform  Examination  Questions  in  Geography,  from  the  begin- 
ning to  March,  1889.    Paper,  16mo,  pp.  30.    10  cts. 

10.  Key  to  the  above.    Paper,  lOmo,  pp.  34.    10  cts. 

These  709  questions  and  answers  served  for  the  examination  of  30,000 
teachers  in  the  State  of  New  York.  The  fact  that  the  Key  contains  more 
pages  than  the  Questions,  shows  how  carefully  the  answers,  ofiacially  fur- 
nished, were  prepared. 

II.  A  Globe  Manual  for  Schools.  By  Flavius  J.  Cheney,  Paper,  16mo, 
pp.  95.    25  cts. 

A  simple  and  comprehensive  hand-book  with  illustrations  and  problems. 

12.  The  International  Date  Line.  By  Henry  Collins.  Paper,  16mo.  pp. 
15.    15  cts. 

A  conclusive  treatment  of  a  subject  often  debated. 

13.  Latitude,  Longitude,  and  Time.  By  J.  A.  Bassett.  Manilla,  16mo, 
pp.  42.    25  cts. 

Though  especially  intended  for  arithmetic  classes,  this  will  be  useful  to 
the  teacher  of  geography. 

Ih.  Dissected  Maps  as  follows:  a.  Of  the  United  States,  b.  Of  the  State 
of  New  York.  c.  Of  the  State  of  Michigan,  d.  Of  the  States  of  N.  Y.,  N.  J., 
Del.,  Md.  e.  Of  New  England.  /.  Of  la..  Mo.,  Ks.,  Nev.,  Col.,  Dak.,  Wy., 
Mont. 

Price  of  each,  in  box,  75  cts.  Those  from  ciof  are  from  maps  several 
years  old.  The  others  are  new  and  fresh.  The  peculiar  use  of  these  maps 
in  teaching  geography  is  now  commonly  recognized. 

C.  W.  BARBEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


mmmmm^m^^^m^ 


THE. SCHOOL  BULLFTLy  PUBLICATION'S. 


Helps  in  Eeading  and  Speaking. 

1.  The  Sentence  Method  of  Teaching  Beading.  By  Geo.  L.  Farnham. 
€loth,  16mo,  pp.  50.    Price  50  cts. 

As  the  word  method  was  a  step  above  the  alphabet  method,  so  the  sen- 
tence method  is  a  step  beyond  the  word  method.  "  The  unit  of  thought  is 
the  sentence,"  and  if  the  child  considers  the  words  as  units  in  learning  to 
read,  he  must  unlearn  his  habits  of  reading  in  order  to  read  naturally.  Mr. 
Farnham  shows  how  much  more  easily  children  will  learn  to  read,  and  how 
much  better  they  will  read,  where  this  method  is  employed.  The  book  is  in 
general  use  all  over  the  country— in  Col.  Parker's  Cook  County  Kormal 
School,  among  others.    It  is  especially  valuable  for  teachers'  institutes. 

2,  A  Manual  of  Elocution.  By  John  Swett.  Cloth,  12mo,  pp.  300. 
Price  S1.50. 

A  peculiarly  sensible  and  practical  work,  intended  to  make  not  "  elocu- 
tionists "  but  good  readers  and  speakers. 

S.    Memory  Gems.    By  Geo  H.  IIoss.    Paper,  IGmo,  pp.  40.    Price  15  cts. 

Especially  intended  for  opening  exercises  in  school,  where  each  pupil 
rises  and  repeats  some  sterling  quotation. 

h.  Memm^y  Selections.  By  Charles  Northend.  24  manilla  cards  in  a 
box.    Three  series,  Primary,  Intermediate,  Advanced.    Price  of  each,  25  cts. 

The  special  convenience  of  these  cards  is  that  they  may  be  distributed 
among  the  pupils,  so  that  one  box  answers  for  an  entire  room.  The  selec- 
tions are  very  highly  commended. 

5.  The  Table  is  Set.  A  Comedy  for  Schools,  from  the  German  of  Ben- 
dlx.    By  AA^'elland  IIendrick.    IGnio,  pp.  30.    Price  15  cts. 

Nothing  is  in  greater  demand  than  little  plays  for  school  entertain- 
ments, with  ew  characters  and  requiring  no  scenery,  and  yet  thoroughly 
bright  and  entertaining.    This  play  will  be  found  to  meet  all  requirements. 

C.  Calisthenics  and  Disciplinary  Exercises.  By  E.  Y.  DeGraff.  Manilla, 
16mo,  pp.  39.    25  cts. 

These  exercises  I'cquire  no  apparatus,  and  can  be  used  without  music. 
They  are  adapted  to  schools  of  every  grade. 

*'•  The  directions  are  clear  and  simple,  and  the  exercises  if  properly  per- 
formed, will  serve  not  only  to  relieve  tlie  tedium  of  school-work,  but  to  give 
grace  of  movement,  and  a  habit  of  prompt  response  to  orders.'"— Wisconsin 
Journal  of  Education. 

7.  The  Gennan  System  of  Light  Gymnastics^  with  Explanations,  Direc- 
tions, and  45  Illustrations.    Manilla,  IGrao,  pp.  32.    Price  25  cts. 

This  is  the  system  in  common  use  in  the  German  schools  and  requires  no 
apparatus.    It  is  based  on  the  symmetrical  deveU)pment  of  all  the  muscles, 
and  has  positive  health  value,  besides  providing  simple  and  attractive 
exercises. 
C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS.- 


Helps  in  Language  Teaching. 

1.  Normal  Language  Lessons  .•  being  the  instruction  in  Grammar  j?iven 
at  the  Cortland  State  Normal  School.  By  Prof.  S.  J.  Sornberger.  16mo, 
boards,  pp.  81.    50  cts. 

Whatever  text-book  the  teacher  uses,  or  if  he  uses  no  text-book  at  all, 
he  will  find  this  manual  of  gi-eat  assistance.  Its  classification  is  simple,  Its 
definitions  are  careful,  its  tabular  analyses  are  complete,  and  Us  reference  by 
page  to  all  the  best  autJvors  makes  it  invaluable. 

S.  Exercises  in  English  Syntax.  By  A.  G.  Bugbee.  16mo,  leatherette, 
pp.  87.    35  cts. 

This  differs  from  other  handbooks  of  sentences  for  class-drill  in  that  It 
does  not  print  w^rong  sentences  to  be  corrected,— a  practice  now  generally 
condemned,  because  incorrect  forms  should  never  be  put  before  the  child's 
«ye,— but  leaves  blanks  in  the  sentence  to  be  filled  by  the  pupil  from  a 
choice  of  expressions  given,  thus  calling  in  the  most  effective  way  to  right 
usage  and  its  reasons.  It  is  of  especial  assistance  in  preparation  for  Re- 
gents' examinations,  vv^hich  always  include  much  work  of  this  kind.  Send 
for  special  circular  with  specimen  sentences,  and  recommendations. 

S.  The  Regents''  Questions  in  Grammar^  from  the  beginning  to  June, 
1882.  By  Daniel  J.  Pratt,  Assistant  Secretary.  16mo,  manilla,  pp.  109. 
25  cts. 

This  unequalled  series  of  questions  is  recognized  throughout  the  country 
as  the  best  drill-book  ever  made,  and  the  only  satisfactory  preparation  for 
examination. 

An  edition  of  these  Questions,  with  complete  answers,  and  references  to  the 
grammars  of  Brown,  Murray,  Greene,  Clark,  Kerl,  Quackenbos,  Weld  «fc 
Quackenbos,  Hart,  Fowler,  Swinton,  Reed  &  Kellogg,  and  Whitney,  will  be 
sent  post-paid  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  One  Dollar.  It  contains  198 
pages,  and  is  handsomely  bound  in  cloth. 

4.  Dime  Questiorf  Book  No.  lU,  Grammar.  By  Albert  P.  South:wick, 
16mo,  paper,  pp.  35.    10  cts. 

This  is  one  of  the  best  books  in  a  deservedly  popular  series,  giving  full 
answers  to  every  question,  with  notes,  queries,  etc.  Conductor  John  Ken- 
nedy says:  "The  bad  question  book  fosters  cram;  the  good  one  suggests 
study.  Mr.  Southwick's  system  is  good.  It  is  happy  and  nourishing.  I 
hope  you  may  sell  a  million  of  them." 

5.  T/ie  Diacritical  Speller.  A  practical  course  of  exercises  in  Spelling 
and  Pronunciation.    By  C.  R.  Bales.    8vo,  boards,  pp.  68.    50  cts. 

This  work  is  novel  even  in  a  field  so  thoroughly  worked  as  spelling.  Its 
striking  features  are  conciseness  and  simplicity.  The  pupil  is  not  drilled 
upon  what  all  pupils  know,  but  only  upon  what  most  pupils  fail  in.  The 
collections  of  words  are  made  v^ith  great  skill,  and  the  pupil  who  uses  this 
book  is  not  likely  to  say  Toosday  or  Reuler.  The  selection  of  test-words  is 
particularly  happy,  and  the  exercises  in  sjmonyms  will  afford  material  for 
many  a  spare  ten  mirmt^H.— California  Teacher. 

6.  An  Aid  to  English  Grammar ;  designed  principally  for  Teachers. 
By  AsHER  P.  Starkweather.    IGmo,  boards,  pp.  230.    75  cts. 

This  is  a  grammar  aid  book  on  a  wholly  original  plan.  It  is  simply  a 
collexjtion  of  words  which  are  used  as  two  or  more  parts  of  speech,  witk 
illustrative  sentences  to  show  their  correct  use. — Schjocl  Heraldy  Chicago. 

C,  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


f^3 
THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS. 


Exercises  in  English  Syntax. 

By  A.  G.  BuGBEE.    Leatherette,  16mo,  pp.  87.    35  cts. 

This  differs  from  other  handbooks  of  sentences  for  class-drill,  in  that  it 
does  not  print  wrong  sentences  to  be  corrected— a  practice  now  generally 
condemned  because  a  wrong  form  should  never  be  put  before  the  child's 
eye— but  leaves  blanks  in  the  sentence  to  be  filled  by  the  pupil  from  a  choice 
of  expressions  given,  thus  in  the  most  effective  way  calling  attention  to 
right  usage  and  its  reasons.    Thus : 

1.  "  His  wealth  and  ....  bid  adieu  to  each  other."    Use  him  or  he. 

2.  '• art  most  in  fault."    Use  tJiou  or  ihee. 

8.  and were  chosen."    Use  Tier  or  she,  and  he  or  him. 

4.  "  —  do  you  think  was  there? "    Use  who  or  whom. 

No  book  we  have  ever  published  has  met  a  readier  or  more  hearty  re- 
ception. From  the  many  good  words  that  have  come  to  us,  we  select  the 
following : 

"I  am  thoroughly  pleased  with  Bugbee's  Exerdus  in  English  Syntax. 
Having  used  for  some  yeare  a  ms.  work  of  my  own  of  similar  character,  I 
would  be  pleased  to  lay  it  aside  for  better  and  more  convenient  form. 
Please  give  me  your  introductory  rates."— H.  E.  Chambers,  principal  No.  12, 
New  Orleans,  and  editor  of  Progressive  Teacher. 

"It  is  not  intended  to  take  the  place  of  a  grammar  but  to  become  a 
valuable  auxiliary  to  it.  The  value  of  the  book  is  apparent  at  a  glance."— 
Commonwealth,  Boston. 

"  The  advantages  of  this  plan  are  so  apparent  that  not  a  word  of  com- 
mendation need  be  spoken."— Caro^/na  Teacher. 

"  A  useful  and  sensible  manual,  and  all  the  better  for  being  free  from 
ambitious  novelties.  "—//icZ«/)€nrfe/i<. 

"  Nothing  else  so  excellent  in  its  way  has  come  to  our  notice,  and  we 
think  its  use  will  do  much  to  train  children  to  correct  habits  of  speech.  It 
is  based  on  good  sound  doctrine."— ^d'Mca^iona^  Courant,  Louisville,  Ky. 

"Teachers  are  well  nigh  as  anxious  for  exercises  in  English  syntax  as 
they  were  before  the  crusade  against  teaching  that  subject.  It  would  bo 
difficult  to  desire  the  work  essayed  better  done  than  in  this  monograph.  It 
aids  the  teacher  in  all  of  the  standard  work  of  the  class  ;  it  suggests  scores 
of  things  that  the  teacher  wonders  why  he  has  not  tried  for  himself. 
America  is  to  be  congratulated  upon  having  such  an  array  of  ingenious  men 
in  the  school-room,  and  publishers  like  !Mr.  Bardeen,  who  knows  how  to 
find  them  and  how  to  use  them."— iV.  E.  Journal  of  Education. 

C.  W.  BAKDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y* 


■THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS.- 


( 1  No.  25  Models,  f  }  ?Srf  K 

No.  1  consists  of  <  1  Primary  Man'l,  No,  2  consists  of  \  i  ^^T.^'  :^^°f; 

1 1  Colored  Paper.  nninrJp«'n 


The  Prang  System  of  Drawing. 

These  publications  are  the  only  ones  that  accord  with  the  Syllabus  pre- 
pared by  Dr.  John  R.  French  and  adopted  by  the  State  Superintendent, 
"We  are  the  exclusive  agents  in  this  State,  and  can  fill  all  orders  promptly. 
We  carry  in  stock  a  complete  line,  thus  saving  our  customers  transportation 
from  Boston. 

The  attention  of  teachers  is  called  to  Prang's  Outfits  of  Models,  Colored 
Paper,  etc.,  which  have  been  specially  prepared  for  use  in  Institute  instruc- 
tion in  this  State. 

There  are  two  of  these  Outfits— one  for  teachers  who  are  engaged  in 
teaching  in  the  Primary  grade,  (No.  1)  or  the  first  three  years ;  the  other  for 
teachers  in  the  Intermediate  and  Grammar  grades,  (No.  2). 

These  Outfits  supply  teachers  with  the  ^Models  and  Manuals,  a  careful 
study  of  which  will  prepare  for  the  Examinations  in  Drawing  for  the  Uni- 
form Teachers'  Certificates. 

No.  25  Models,  f  ^  ^l^-^'ISg^"' 

Manual, 
,  1  Colored  Paper. 
Piice  50  cents  each,  by  inail  75  cents. 

PARTIAL  PRICE  LIST  OF  PRANG'S  DRAWING  BOOKS  AND  MANUALS. 

Prang's  Drawing  Books,  Shorter  Course,  (5  Nos.) per  doz.,  $1  80- 

Introductory  Book "     "     180 

Drawing  Books,  Complete  Course  (5  Nos.) "     "       120 

Teachers'  Manual,  entitled  "The  Use  of  Models,"  each 50- 

"  "         for  Shorter  Course "    50 

Manual,  without  Clay  Modeling "    25 

PRANG'S  MODELS  FOR  FORM  STUDY  AND  DRAWING. 

SOLIDS. 

Set  No.  1— for  First  Primary  Year $10  00 

Group  A,  Teachers'  size,  6  Models,  4  x  8  in $4  00 

"       B,Pupils'         "    60       "         2x4"     3  00 

"       C,       "  "  120       "  1x2"  3  00 

Set  No.  2— for  Second  Primary  Year $12  OO 

Group  A,  Teachers'  size,  6  Models,  4 x 8  in. ,  $4  50 

"      B,Pupils'         "    60       "         2x4"  4  00 

"      C,       "  "  120       "         1x2" 3  50 

TABLETS. 

Set  No.  1— for  First  Primary  Year $6  25 

Group  A,  Teachers'  size,  6  Tablets,  circle  6  in., $1  25 

"      B,Pupils'         "250        "  "      2"    2  75 

"      C,      '^  "  480       "  "      1   "    2  25 

Set  No.  2— for  Second  Primary  Year $8  75 

Group  A,  Teachers'  size,  6  Tablets,  ellipse  12  in., $1  25 

"      B,  Pupils'         "360        "  "        2"    4  00 

"      C,       "  "  800       "  "        1   "   3  50 

Sticks— per  box  of  1500,  assorted  lengths , $    75 

Send  for  ComjJleie  Illustrated  List  of  individual  sets  and  supplies. 
We  shall  be  glad  to  give  any  further  information  on  this  subject  that 
may  be  desired,  and  also  to  render  such  advice  as  may  be  needed  in  regard 
to  the  grading  for  first  introduction  of  the  study. 


C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


pt-'?'^>?-?p^''?t??^^^^ 


■  THB  SCHOOL  BTJLfETIN  PTTBLTCATIONS. 


Music  in  the  Scliool  Eoom. 

1.  The  Song  Budget.  A  collections  of  Songs  and  Music  for  Educational 
'Gatherings.    By  E.  V.  De  Graff,    Small  4to,  paper,  pp.  76.    15  cts. 

This  book  owes  its  popularity  to  two  causes : 

(1)  It  gives  a  great  deal  for  the  money. 

(2)  The  songs  are  not  only  numerous  (107),  but  tJiey  are  the  standard  favor- 
ites of  the  last  fifty  years. 

This  is  why  the  book  contains  more  music  that  will  be  vsed  than  any  other 
book  publishea.  For  in  all  other  books  that  we  know  of,  two-thirds  of  the 
tunes  are  written  by  the  compilers,  who  are  of  course  partial  to  their  own 
productions.  Sup't  Be  Graff  wrote  no  songs  of  his  own,  but  gathered  those 
which  his  long  experience  as  a  conductor  of  teachers'  institutes  had  shown 
him  to  be  the  most  generally  familiar  and  plea^sing. 

In  fact,  the  success  of  this  book  has  been  due  to  the  fact  that  only  those 
songs  Avere  admitted  that  have  proved  to  be  universal  favorites.  This  in- 
volved a  large  original  outlay,  as  much  as  fifty  dollars  having  been  paid  for 
the  riglit  to  use  a  single  song.  But  the  best  were  taken,  wherever  ther 
could  be  found  and  at  whatever  cost,  and  the  result  is  a  school  singing-book 
of  popularity  unexampled.  For  instance,  a  single  frtn  in  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
J.  1{.  Ilolcomb  &,  Co..  had  purchased  of  us  up  to  Feb.  15,  1888,  no  less  than 
9730  copies,  4500  within  the  last  six  months,  besides  2100  of  the  School  Room 
Chxrrvs. 

2.  The  School  lioom  Chorus.  A  collection  of  Tw^o  Hundred  Songs  for 
Public  and  Private  Schools,  compiled  by  E.  V.  De  Graff.  Small,  4to,  boards, 
pp.  148.    35  cts. 

This  is  an  enlarged  edition  of  the  Song  Budget,  with  twice  the  number 
of  songs.  The  plates  of  the  last  edition  are  so  arranged  that  it  is  identical 
-with  the  Song  Budget  as  far  as  page  68,  so  that  both  books  can  bo  used  to- 
gether. The  Budget  and  Chorus  are  particularly  adapted  for  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciations and  Institutes,  At  these  prices  every  meeting  of  teachers  can  be  sup- 
plied with  one  or  the  other,  while  the  fact  that  the  tunes  are  standard 
favorites  makes  it  easy  for  any  audience  to  join  in  the  singing  at  sight 

5.  The  Diadem  qf  School  Songs  ,•  containing  Songs  and  Music  for  all 
^ades  of  Schools,  a  new  system  of  Instruction  in  the  elements  of  IMusie, 
and  a  Manual  of  Directions  for  the  use  of  Teachers.  By  Wm.  Tillinghast. 
Small,  4to.  boards,  pp.  160.    50  cts. 

This  book,  of  which  Dr.  French,  the  veteran  institute-instructor  was 
associate  author,  gives  an  exceedingly  simple  and  practical  system  of  in- 
struction, as  well  as  a  valuable  collection  of  songs. 

U.  Half  a  Hundred  Songs,  for  the  School-Room  and  Home.  By  Hattie 
S.  Russell.    16mo,  boards,  pp.  103.    35  ct«. 

These  songs  are  all  original,  but  without  music. 

5.  T/ie  School  Vocalist ;  containing?  a  thorough  system  of  elementary 
Instruction  in  VDcal  :Nrusi(',  with  Practical  Exercises,  Songs,  Hymns,  Chants, 
Ac,  adapted  to  the  use  of  Scliools  and  Academies.  By  E,  Locke,  and  S. 
NouRSE.    Oblong,  boards,  pp.  IGO.    Price  50  cts. 

6.  The  School  Melodist.  A  Song  Book  for  School  and  Home.  By  E, 
Locke  and  S.  Noursk.    Oblong,  boards,  pp.  160.    I*rice  50  cts, 

7.  The  Song  Life,  for  Sunday  Schools,  etc,,  illustrating  in  song  the 
lourney  of  Christiana  and  her  children  to  the  Celestial  (.^ity.  Small  4to 
Doards,  pp,  176,    Price  50  cts. 

Nos  5,  6,  and  7  are  books  that  have  had  their  day,  but  of  which  we  have 
a  few  hundred  copies  of  oacli  on  liand.  These  we  will  .sell  at  10  cts,  each ; 
if  to  go  by  mail,  0  cts.  each  e.\tra.    They  contain  iiuich  good  music. 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


■THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS.- 


Our  New  Music  Book. 

The  universal 
popularity  of  the 
Song  Budget,  the 
sales  of  which 
have  probably- 
exceeded  that  of 
any  other  school 
music-book  pub- 
lished, has  made 
it  no  easy  task  to 
prepare  a  similar 
collection  to  fol- 
low it  in  schools 
where  its  songs 
had  become  fa- 
miliar. The  songs 
here  given  are  a 
final  choice  from 
more  than  a 
thousand  which 
had  been  selected 
from  every  avail- 
able source,  but 

especially  from  actual  and  pleasing  use  in  the  school  room.  As  the  list  nar- 
rowed down  to  seven,  five,  three,  two  hundred,  it  became  more  and  more 
difficult  to  reject,  and  the  last  twenty  were  dropped  with  extreme  reluc- 
tance. But  it  was  tliought  best  to  adhere  to  the  limits  of  the  Song  Budget, 
and  though  this  book  contains  mpre  pages  the  price  will  be  the  same. 

A  large  portion  of  the  songs  have  been  rearranged  expressly  for  this 
book.  Effort  has  been  make  to  keep  within  the  compass  of  children's 
voices,  avoiding  the  mistake  of  pitching  them  too  low  as  well  as  that  of 
making  them  too  high  ;  and  also  to  preserve  the  harmony  without  making 
the  accompaniment  too  difficult.  The  proportion  of  higher  class  music  is 
somewhat  greater  than  in  the  Song  Budget,  but  the  advance  is  no  more  than 
corresponds  with  the  more  cultivated  taste  that  already  appears  from  in- 
creasing instruction  in  the  art  of  singing.  The  Song  Budget  was  fully  up  to 
the  school-child's  musical  taste  of  fifteen  years  ago.  The  Song  Centvry  is 
believed  to  be  quite  abreast  of  the  musical  taste  of  to-day.  When  schools 
all  over  the  land  are  familiar  with  these  songs  and  call  for  another  collec- 
tion, it  is  to  be  hoped  tlie  possibilities  of  choice  will  be  still  wider. 

To  hundreds  of  teachers  who  have  aided  him  in  making  this  collection 
representative  of  the  best  music  sung  in  American  schools,  the  compiler  re- 
turns earnest  thanks,  and  hopes  they  may  find  reward  in  the  use  of  this 
new  century  of  songs. 

C.  W.  BARDEElSr,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N,  Y. 


■THE  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS. 


Official  Question  Books. 

i.  7%«  New  York  State  Examination  Questions  from  the  beginning  to 
the  present  date.    Cloth,  16mo,  pp.  274,  50  cts. 

These  annual  examinations,  onljr  by  which  can  State  Certificates  be  ob- 
tained in  New  York,  liave  a  reputation  all  over  the  country  for  excellence 
and  comprehensiveness. .  The  subjects  are  as  follows  : 

Arithmetic,  Grammar,  Physics,  Geography, 

Book -Keeping,     'Composition,       Chemistry,       Civil  Government, 
Algebra,  Rhetoric,  Geology,  Astronomy, 

Geometry,  Literature,  Botany,  Methods, 

Drawing,  History,  Zoology,  School  Economy, 

Penmanship,         Latin,  Physiology,     School  Law. 

No  answers  are  published,  except  in  the  following  special  volume. 

2.  Dime  (Question  Book  on  Book-Keeping,  containing  all  the  questions  in 
that  sui).ject  given  at  the  first  15  New  York  Examinations  for  State  Certifi- 
cates, with  full  Answers,  Sdutions,  and  Form^.    Paper,  16mo,  pp.  31,  10  cts. 

3.  The  Uniform  Examination  Questions.  By  voluntary  adoption  of  the 
113  School-Commissioners  of  the  State  of  New  York,  certificates  are  now 
given  only  on  examinations  held  under  these  questions,  which  are  issued 
sealed  from  the  State  Department.  All  these  Questions  from  the  beginning  to 
March  14th,  1889,  are  now  published  as  follows,  and  we  commend  them  as 
worth  the  attention  of  all  who  have  to  conduct  or  undergo  examinations. 

I,  Arithmetic,  317  Questions,  10  cts.  II.  Key,  10  cts. 

III.  Geography,  709  "  "  IV.     '' 

V.  Grammar,  533  "  "  VI.     " 

VII.  U.  S.  History,  429  "  "  VIIL      " 

IX.  Civil  Government,     355  "  "  X,     "        " 

XI.  Physiology,  ^45  "  "  XII.     "        " 

h.  The  Civil  Service  Question  Book.  Cloth,  16mo,  pp.  282,  81.50, 
42.000  places  are  now  filled  exclusively  by  appointments  dependent  on 
examinations.  No  favoritism  is  possible.  Y^ou  do  not  need  the  influence  of 
Congressman  or  of  politician.  You  have  only  to  learn  when  tlie  next  ex- 
amination is  held,  apply  for  the  necessary  papers,  present  yoursself,  and 
answer  the  questions  asked.  The  appointments  are  made  from  those  who 
stand  highest,  and  are  open  to  women  as  well  as  to  men.  All  the  particu- 
lars as  to  tliese  examinations,  the  places  and  dates  where  held,  and  how  to 
apply,  are  here  given  with  943  specimen  questions  in  Arifhynetic,  575  specimen 
questions  in  GfOf/raphij.  400  specimen  questions  in  English  Syntax,  100  each 
in  Amencan  IHslory  aiid  Civil  Government,  with  full  treatises  on  Book-Keep- 
ing and  on  Letter-Writing.  To  prepare  for  competition  for  places  at  $1,000 
arid  higher  these  subjects  and  tliese  only  are  required.  Any  one  who  can 
HTiswer  the  questions  here  given,  to  all  of  which  full  and  complete  answers  are 
added,  is  ready  to  enter  the  next  examination. 

IIon.ToiixB.  Riley,  Chief  Examiner,  State  of  New  York,  July  10,  1888, 
says  :  "  I  am  pleased  with  your  Civil  Service  (Question  Book.  It  will  not  only 
be  of  service  to  those  intending  to  try  the  Civil  Service  examinations,  but 
teacli«;rs  or  others  who  are  obliged  to  prepare  questions  for  examinations  in 
the  common  Englisli  branches  will  find  it  a  great  convenience." 

The  N.  E,  Journal  of  Education  savs,  Aug.  23, 1888 :  "  It  is  rarely  that  any 
book  can  be  found  with  so  many  valuable  and  so  few  unimportant  questions." 
r>.  SOOO  Grammar  Questions,  with  Answers.  By  IIenky  KinnLE,  A.  M., 
formerly  Superintendent  of  Seliools,  New  York  City,  and  now  editor  of 
Brown's  Grammars,  (loth,  l(!mo,  pp.  220.  Price.  $1-00.  It  is  a  great  thing 
for  teachers  to  l)e  sure  theij  are  right,  especially  on  some  of  the  puzzling 
questions.  As  an  authority  Mr.  Kiddle  is  second  to  no  man  living,  and  these 
answers  prei)ared  by  him  may  be  regarded  !is  absolutely  correct. 

C.  W.  BAKDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


■THE  SCHOOL  BULLETm  PUBLICATIONS.- 


Instruction  in  Citizensliip. 

1.  Civil  Government  for  Common  Schools,  prepared  as  a  manual  for 
public  instruction  in  the  State  of  New  York.  To  which  are  appended  the 
Constitution  of  the  State  of  New  York  as  amended  at  the  election  of  1882, 
the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
etc.,  etc.    By  Henry  C.  Noktham.    16mo,  cloth,  pp.  185.    75  cts. 

Is  it  that  this  book  was  made  because  the  times  demanded  it,  or  that  the 
publication  of  a  book  which  made  the  teaching?  of  Civil  Government  practi- 
cable led  to  a  general  desire  that  it  should  be  taught  ?  Certain  it  is  that  this 
subject,  formerly  regarded  as  a  "  finishing  "  branch  in  the  high  school,  is 
now  found  on  every  teacher's  examination-paper,  and  is  commonly  taught 
in  district  schools.  Equally  certain  is  it  that  in  the  State  of  New  York  this 
text-book  is  used  more  than  all  others  combined. 

3.  A  Chart  of  Civil  Goverjiment.  By  Charles  T.  Pooler.  Sheets  12x18, 
5  cts.    The  same  folded,  in  cloth  covers,  25  cts. 

Schools  using  Northam's  Civil  Government  will  find  this  chart  of  great 
use,  and  those  not  yet  ready  to  introduce  a  text-book  will  be  able  to  give  no 
little  valuable  instruction  by  the  charts  alone.  Some  commissioners  have 
purchased  them  by  the  hundred  and  presented  one  to  every  school  house  in 
the  county. 

S.  Handbook  for  School  Teachers  and  Trustees.  A  manual  of  School 
Law  for  School  Officers,  Teachers  and  Parents  in  the  State  of  New  York. 
By  Herbert  Brownell.    16mo,  leatherette,  pp.  64.    35  cts. 

This  is  a  specification  of  the  general  subject,  presenting  clearly,  defi- 
nitely, and  with  references^  important  questions  of  School  Law.  Particular 
attention  is  called  to  the  chapters  treating  of  schools  under  visitation  of  the 
Eegents— a  topic  upon  which  definite  information  is  often  sought  for  in  vain. 

h.  Common  School  Laio  for  Common  School  Teachers.  A  digest  of  the 
provisions  of  statute  and  common  law  as  to  the  relations  of  the  Teacher  to 
the  Pupil,  the  Parent,  and  the  District.  With  500  references  to  legal  decis- 
ions in  28  different  States.  14th  edition,  wholly  re-written,  with  references 
to  the  new  Code  of  1888.    By  C.  W.  Bardeen.    16mo,  cloth,  pp.  120.    75  cts. 

This  has  been  since  1875  the  standard  authority  upon  the  teacher's  rela- 
tions, and  is  frequently  quoted  in  legal  decisions.  The  new  edition  is  much 
more  complete  than  its  predecessoi*s,  containing  Topical  Table  of  Contents, 
and  a  minute  Index. 

5.  Laws  of  New  York  relating  to  Common  Sclwols,  with  comments  and 
instructions,  and  a  digest  of  decisions.    8vo,  leather,  pp.  807.    $4.00. 

This  is  what  is  known  as  "The  New  Code  of  1888,"  and  contains  all  re- 
visions of  the  State  school-law  to  date. 

6.  The  Powers  and  Duties  of  Officers  and  Teachers.  By  Albert  P.  Mar- 
ble.   16mo,  paper,  pp.  27.    15  cts. 

A  vigorous  presentation  in  Sup't  Marble's  pungent  style  of  tendencies 
as  well  as  facts. 

7.  Mrsf,  J^inciples  of  Political  Economy/.  By  Joseph  Aldek.  16mo, 
cloth,  pp.  153.    75  cts. 

Ex-President  Andrew  D.  White  says  of  this  book  :  "  It  is  clear,  well 
arranged,  and  the  bei?t  treatise  for  the  purpose  I  have  ever  seen." 

C.  W.  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


■THE  SCHOOL  BVLLETIN  PUBLICATIONS.- 


Honglton's  Conspectus  of  Political  Parties. 

Cloth.    Quarto,  pp.  100.    Price  $5.00. 

Do  You  Know  the  History  of  Political  Parties? 

Can  You  Trace  the  Growth  of  the  Tory,  Whig,  Federal,  Democratic^ 
and  Republican  parties,  with  all  such  temporary  off-shoots  as  the  Clintonian, 
Anti-Mason,  Nullification,  Loco-Foco,  Hunker,  Barnburner,  Free-Soil,  Silver- 
Gray,  Anti-Nebraska,  and  the  rest  ? 

Would  You  Like  to  be  able  to  explain  these  terms  to  your  class  in  his- 
tory when  you  came  to  them  ? 

Would  You  Appheciate  a  Colored  Chart  that  made  all  these  parties  as 
plain  as  day,  so  that  a  glance  would  show  what  a  week's  study  would  not 
fix?  Then  buy  HOUGHTON'S  CONSPECTUS. 

\A/lxA.t  Xt  CSrlxros. 

1.  A  Folded  Colored  Chart  5  feet  long,  with  the  history  of  all  the  Political 
Parties  from  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  to  1880. 

2.  A  Folded  Colored  Chart  5  feet  long,  with  the  Cabinets  of  all  the  Ad- 
ministrations, and  the  main  political  issues  involved  during  the  four  yeai-s. 

3.  A  Colored  Political  CJiart,  double-page,  showing  the  territory  con- 
trolled by  the  Republican  and  that  by  the  Democratic  party  in  1880. 

4.  A  Colored  Chart  showing  the  sources  from  which  Government  Rev- 
enue is  derived. 

5.  A  Colored  Chart  showing  the  avenues  into  which  Government  Ex- 
penditure is  directed. 

6.  Four  Colored  Charts  showing  the  political  proportions  of  the  States  in 
various  relations  from  1789  to  1880. 

7.  A  Colored  Map  showing  the  Acquisition  of  Territory  of  the  United 
States,  and  its  division  among  the  States  and  Territories. 

8.  A  List  of  all  Presidential  Candidates. 

9.  Platforms  of  all  Political  Parties  in  all  the  campaigns. 

10.  Lists  of  all  the  Governors  of  all  the  States. 

11.  Much  other  Political  Infoinnation  of  various  kinds  and  inconvenient 
form. 

You  will  find  here  just  tlie  information  so  often  a.sked  and  so  seldom 
answered  at  Teachers'  Examinations  and  in  private  conversation.  It  is 
safe  to  sjiy  that  the  same  amount  of  study  could  hardly  bo  exi>cnded  so 
profitably  in  any  other  direction.  For  Civil  Government  and  History  classes, 
it  is  invaluable! 

The  most  important  features  of  this  book,  including  the  Colored  Charts, 
may  also  be  had  in  map- form,  to  be  hung  upon  the  wall,  at  the  same  price. 

C.  W.  BAKDEEX,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


THE  SCHO  OL  B  ULLETIN  PUBLIC  A  TIONS.- 


Helps  in  Teaching  Natural  Science. 

1.  Laboratory  Manual  of  Experimental  Physics.  A  brief  course  of  Quan- 
titative Physics,  intended  for  Beginners.  By  Albert  L.  Arey.  Clotli,, 
16mo,  pp.  200.    Price  75  cts. 

This  is  a  directly  practical  manual  for  elementary  experimental  work  in 
physics.  It  gives  full  details  for  the  constraction  of  inexpensive  apparatus, 
is  abundantly  illustrated,  and  gives  on  the  right-hand  pages  blanks  for  en- 
tries by  the  pupil,  usually  in  tabular  form.  The  advantages  of  quantitative 
experiments  are  recognized,  and  this  book  is  the  first  to  make  them  possible 
in  the  ordinary  high  school.  Immediately  upon  its  appearance  it  wa» 
adopted  for  use  in  the  Rochester  Free  Academy. 

2.  Syllabus  of  Lectures  on  Physiology.  By  Tiios.  B.  Stowell,  Ph.D.^ 
principal  of  the  State  Normal  School,  Potsdam,  N.  Y.  3d  edition.  Boards, 
8vo,  pp.  13.3.    Price  %\m. 

This  is,  like  the  above,  a  manual  for  practical  work,  with  illustrations, 
and  with  the  right-hand  pages  blank. 

S.  A  Hundred  Home-Made  Experiments  in  Natural  Science,  by  Johk  S. 
KcKay,  Ph.D.    Paper,  IGmo,  pp.  50,  price  15  cts. 

This  describes  simple  experiments  so  arranged  as  to  teach  physics  in- 
ductively, and  contains  17  illustrations.  It  may  be  used  with  profit  in  any 
district  school. 

L  Systematic  Plant  Record.  By  Prof.  L.  M.  Underwood,  Ph.  D.,  of 
Syracuse  University.    Manilla,  4to,  pp.  52.    Price  30  cts. 

The  reputation  of  the  author,  who  is  eminent  among  the  younger  scien- 
tists of  the  country,  is  well  sustained  in  this  compendious  and  convenient 
record  for  the  pupil's  use. 

5.  Dim^  Question  Books  of  Physics,  Chemistry,  Geology,  Botany,  Zoology, 
Physiology,  Astronomy.  By  Albert  P.  Soutuwick.  Paper,  16mo,  pp.  about 
40.    Pi-ice  of  each  10  cts. 

Without  being  exhaustive  in  these  subjects,  these  little  books  give  much 
information  and  many  useful  suggestions  to  teachers.  They  are  capital  for 
review,  and  especially  as  preparations  for  examination. 

6.  Dime  Question  Book  of  Stimulants  and  Narcotics,  ■pre'paTed  in  acGord- 
ance  with  the  effort  to  promote  Temperance  in  the  Public  Schools.  By 
C.  W.  Bardeen.    Paper,  16mo,  pp.  40.    Price  10  cts. 

It  is  invaluable  to  many  others  besides  teachers.  It  quotes  all  the 
standard  authors  in  its  respective  topics.—  Commonivealth,  Boston. 

The  few  remarks  about  tobacco  are,  I  think,  truthful  and  just,  neither 
too  strong  nor  too  mild.  I  could  wish  that  our  writers  on  alcohol  would 
use  a  like  moderation  in  their  statements.— J.  Hazleivood,  M.D.,  Grand  Bap- 
ids,  MicJi.,  member  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  July  31,  lS8k. 

7.  How  to  Teach  Natural  Science  in  the  Public  Schools.  By  W.  T.  Har- 
Bis,LL.D.,  Commissioner  of  Education.    Paper,  IGmo,  pp.  40.    Price  15  cts. 

Nothing  better  on  the  subject  is  accessible  in  so  compact  a  form.— 
The  Cfi.tic,  Aug.  27, 18S7. 

C,  W,  BARDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 


7-7/^  SCHOOL  BULLETIN  PUBLICATIONS. 


Helps  in  Teaching  Penmansliip. 

1.  Wells''it  Improved  Practical  Methods  of  Penmanship.  CJiaidauqua  Seriee. 
Copy  Books,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4.    Manilla,  7x83^,'  pp.  24,  per  dozen,  $1.20. 

No.  1  presents  a  series  of  24  oval  exercises,  combining  in  simple  form 
■all  of  the  curve  movements  employed  in  writing— and  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage through  two  terms.  It  is  designed  to  teach  arm  movement,  pur« 
and  simple. 

No.  2  contains  a  series  of  drills  in  large  text  hand,  by  means  of  which 
the  straight  line  movement  so  essential  to  correct  formation  is  thoroughly 
mastered  ;  and  introduces  the  standard  capital  letter  movements  systemati- 
cally grouped  and  followed  by  drills  on  the  letters  themselves. 

No.  3  is  designed  through  a  series  of  well  arranged  exercises  to  de- 
velop and  apply  the  sliding  or  lateral  movement  in  connection  with  the  arm 
action.  The  movement  acquired  by  this  drill  is  the  essential  element  in  all 
business  or  current  hand  wi-iting,  giving  both  freedom  and  smoothness  to 
the  text.  This  number  introduces  the  forms  of  all  small  letters  and  capitals, 
with  a  complete  drill  on  the  numerals. 

No.  4  gives  an  attractive  series  of  extended  capital  movement  drills, 
together  with  useful  combinations  of  the  capital  letters  in  connection  with 
words.  The  special  object  of  this  number  is  to  promote  freedom  and  speed 
in  execution  ;  it  also  contains  a  review  of  all  the  letters. 

In  the  Syi-acuse  schools,  where  the  method  has  been  in  use  since  1879, 
mimbers  1,  2  and  4  are  each  used  two  terms,  and  No.  3,  four  terms. 

In  a  testimonial  dated  June  26, 1889,  Sup't  Blodgett  and  ercry  one  of  the 
.20  principals  of  public  schools  in  Syracuse  unite  in  saying  : 

"This  branch,  which  ten  yeai-s  ago  was  considered  so  difficult  to  handle 
and  so  generally  barren  of  good  results  has  become  one  of  the  most  popular 
and  helpful  adjuncts  of  our  school  work. 

"  A  fundamental  principle  of  this  system  is  in  the  substitution  of  the  arm 
movements  for  those  of  the  fingers  for  all  purposes  of  writing,  by  means  of 
which  the  youngest  scholars  may  secure  a  freedo7n  and  strength  in  the 
character  of  their  penmanship  much  in  advance  of  anythmg  hitherto  shown. 

"  We  take  the  term  examination  papers  as  the  only  true  test  of  a  schol- 
ar's advancement  in  penmanshfp,  and  as  measured  by  this  severe  standard 
the  results  uniformly  obtained  are  not  only  highly  satisfactory,  but  are  In 
many  instances  a  revelation  as  to  the  possibilities  in  teachuig  business  writ- 
ing to  children  in  the  public  schools. 

"We  are  satisfied  that  this  plan  of  teaching  as  introduced  and  carried 
•on  in  our  city  schools  here  is  entirely  feasible,  and  that  under  like  conditions 
•equally  good  results  may  be  obtained  anj'where." 

2.  A  Lesson  oji  Ann  Movement  in  Writing.  By  Chas.  R.  Wells.  Paper, 
8vo,  pp.  32,  illustrated,  25  cts. 

This  is  an  exposition  of  the  principles  and  practice  of  the  above  system. 
S.    Penmanship  in  PuNic  Schools.    By  J.  L.  Burbitt.    12mo,  pp.  62,  and 
•chart.    GO  cts. 

/♦.     The  Writing  Portfolio.    By  C.  J.  Brown.    Nos.  1-5,  each  25  cts. 

C.  W.  BAKDEEN,  Publisher,  Syracuse,  N,  Y. 


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